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This resource is using open-source code maintained in github (see the quick-start-guide section) and available for download from NGC

The U-Net model is a convolutional neural network for 3D image segmentation. This repository contains a 3D-UNet implementation introduced in 3D U-Net: Learning Dense Volumetric Segmentation from Sparse Annotation, with modifications described in No New-Net.

This model is trained with mixed precision using Tensor Cores on Volta, Turing, and the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architectures. Therefore, researchers can get results up to 2.3x faster than training without Tensor Cores, while experiencing the benefits of mixed precision training. This model is tested against each NGC monthly container release to ensure consistent accuracy and performance over time.

Model architecture

3D-UNet was first introduced by Olaf Ronneberger, Philip Fischer, and Thomas Brox in the paper: 3D U-Net: Learning Dense Volumetric Segmentation from Sparse Annotation. In this repository we host a 3D-UNet version adapted by Fabian Isensee et al. to brain tumor segmentation. 3D-UNet allows for seamless segmentation of 3D volumes, with high accuracy and performance, and can be adapted to solve many different segmentation problems.

The following figure shows the construction of the 3D-UNet model and its different components. 3D-UNet is composed of a contractive and an expanding path, that aims at building a bottleneck in its centermost part through a combination of convolution and pooling operations. After this bottleneck, the image is reconstructed through a combination of convolutions and upsampling. Skip connections are added with the goal of helping the backward flow of gradients in order to improve the training.

$\"U-Net3D\"$

Default configuration

3D-UNet consists of a contractive (left-side) and expanding (right-side) path. It repeatedly applies unpadded convolutions followed by max pooling for downsampling. Every step in the expanding path consists of an upsampling of the feature maps and a concatenation with the correspondingly cropped feature map from the contractive path.

Feature support matrix

The following features are supported by this model.

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

tr:nth-child(odd)]:bg-surface-sunken\">

Feature	3D-UNet
Automatic mixed precision (AMP)	Yes
Horovod Multi-GPU (NCCL)	Yes
Accelerated Linear Algebra (XLA)	Yes

Features

Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP)

This implementation of 3D-UNet uses AMP to implement mixed precision training. Computation graphs can be modified by TensorFlow on runtime to support mixed precision training. Detailed explanation of mixed precision can be found in the next section.

Horovod

Horovod is a distributed training framework for TensorFlow, Keras, PyTorch, and MXNet. The goal of Horovod is to make distributed deep learning fast and easy to use. For more information about how to get started with Horovod, see the Horovod: Official repository.

Multi-GPU training with Horovod

Our model uses Horovod to implement efficient multi-GPU training with NCCL. For details, see example sources in this repository or see the TensorFlow tutorial.

XLA support (experimental)

XLA is a domain-specific compiler for linear algebra that can accelerate TensorFlow models with potentially no source code changes. The results are improvements in speed and memory usage: most internal benchmarks run ~1.1-1.5x faster after XLA is enabled.

Mixed precision training

Mixed precision is the combined use of different numerical precisions in a computational method. Mixed precision training offers significant computational speedup by performing operations in half-precision format while storing minimal information in single-precision to retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network. Since the introduction of Tensor Cores in Volta, and following with both the Turing and Ampere architectures, significant training speedups are experienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup on the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using mixed precision training previously required two steps:

Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate.
Adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.

This can now be achieved using Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP) for TensorFlow to enable the full mixed precision methodology in your existing TensorFlow model code. AMP enables mixed precision training on Volta, Turing, and NVIDIA Ampere GPU architectures automatically. The TensorFlow framework code makes all necessary model changes internally.

In TF-AMP, the computational graph is optimized to use as few casts as necessary and maximize the use of FP16, and the loss scaling is automatically applied inside of supported optimizers. AMP can be configured to work with the existing tf.contrib loss scaling manager by disabling the AMP scaling with a single environment variable to perform only the automatic mixed-precision optimization. It accomplishes this by automatically rewriting all computation graphs with the necessary operations to enable mixed precision training and automatic loss scaling.

For information about:

How to train using mixed precision, see the Mixed Precision Training paper and Training With Mixed Precision documentation.
Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the Mixed-Precision Training of Deep Neural Networks blog.
How to access and enable AMP for TensorFlow, see Using TF-AMP from the TensorFlow User Guide.

Enabling mixed precision

Mixed precision is enabled in TensorFlow by using the Automatic Mixed Precision (TF-AMP) extension which casts variables to half-precision upon retrieval, while storing variables in single-precision format. Furthermore, to preserve small gradient magnitudes in backpropagation, a loss scaling step must be included when applying gradients. In TensorFlow, loss scaling can be applied statically by using simple multiplication of loss by a constant value or automatically, by TF-AMP. Automatic mixed precision makes all the adjustments internally in TensorFlow, providing two benefits over manual operations. First, programmers need not modify network model code, reducing development and maintenance effort. Second, using AMP maintains forward and backward compatibility with all the APIs for defining and running TensorFlow models.

To enable mixed precision, you can simply add the values to the environmental variable inside your training script:

os.environ['TF_ENABLE_AUTO_MIXED_PRECISION'] = '1'\n

Exporting these variables ensures that loss scaling is performed correctly and automatically.\nBy supplying the --amp flag to the main.py script while training in FP32/TF32, the following variables are set to their correct value for mixed precision training:

if params.amp:\n  os.environ['TF_ENABLE_AUTO_MIXED_PRECISION'] = '1'\n

Enabling TF32

TensorFloat-32 (TF32) is the new math mode in NVIDIA A100 GPUs for handling the matrix math also called tensor operations. TF32 running on Tensor Cores in A100 GPUs can provide up to 10x speedups compared to single-precision floating-point math (FP32) on Volta GPUs.

TF32 Tensor Cores can speed up networks using FP32, typically with no loss of accuracy. It is more robust than FP16 for models which require high dynamic range for weights or activations.

For more information, refer to the TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x blog post.

TF32 is supported in the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architecture and is enabled by default.

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Aside from these dependencies, ensure you have the following components:\n- [NVIDIA Docker](https://github.com/NVIDIA/nvidia-docker)\n- TensorFlow 21.10-tf1-py3 [NGC container](https://ngc.nvidia.com/registry/nvidia-tensorflow)\n- GPU-based architecture:\n - [NVIDIA Volta](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/volta-gpu-architecture/)\n - [NVIDIA Turing](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/turing/)\n - [NVIDIA Ampere](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/nvidia-ampere-gpu-architecture/)\n\nFor more information about how to get started with NGC containers, see the following sections from the NVIDIA GPU Cloud Documentation and the Deep Learning Documentation:\n- [Getting Started Using NVIDIA GPU Cloud](https://docs.nvidia.com/ngc/ngc-getting-started-guide/index.html)\n- [Accessing And Pulling From The NGC container registry](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/user-guide/index.html#accessing_registry)\n- [Running TensorFlow](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/tensorflow-release-notes/running.html#running)\n \nFor those unable to use the TensorFlow NGC container, to set up the required environment or create your own container, see the versioned [NVIDIA Container Support Matrix](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/frameworks/support-matrix/index.html).","hasSetup","quickStartGuide","To train your model using mixed or TF32 precision with Tensor Cores or using FP32, perform the following steps using the default parameters of the 3D-UNet model on the [Brain Tumor Segmentation 2019](https://www.med.upenn.edu/cbica/brats-2019/) dataset. These steps enable you to build the 3D-UNet TensorFlow NGC container, train and evaluate your model, and generate predictions on the test data. For the specifics concerning training and inference, see the [Advanced](#advanced) section.\n \n1. Clone the repository.\n \n Executing this command will create your local repository with all the code to run 3D-UNet.\n \n ```bash\n git clone https://github.com/NVIDIA/DeepLearningExamples\n cd DeepLearningExamples/TensorFlow/Segmentation/U-Net3D_TF\n \n2. Build the U-Net TensorFlow NGC container.\n \n This command will use the `Dockerfile` to create a Docker image named `unet3d_tf`, downloading all the required components automatically.\n \n ```bash\n docker build -t unet3d_tf .\n ```\n \n The NGC container contains all the components optimized for usage on NVIDIA hardware.\n \n3. Start an interactive session in the NGC container to run preprocessing/training/inference.\n \n The following command will launch the container and mount the `./data` directory as a volume to the `/data` directory inside the container, and `./results` directory to the `/results` directory in the container.\n \n ```bash\n mkdir data\n mkdir results\n docker run --runtime=nvidia -it --shm-size=1g --ulimit memlock=-1 --ulimit stack=67108864 --rm --ipc=host -v ${PWD}/data:/data -v ${PWD}/results:/results unet3d_tf:latest /bin/bash\n ```\n \n Any datasets and experiment results (logs, checkpoints, etc.) saved to `/data` or `/results` will be accessible\n in the `./data` or `./results` directory on the host, respectively.\n \n4. Download and pre-process the data.\n \n Data can be obtained by registering on [Brain Tumor Segmentation 2019 dataset](https://www.med.upenn.edu/cbica/brats-2019/) website. The data should be downloaded and placed where `/data` in the container is mounted. The `dataset/preprocess_data.py` script will convert the raw data into tfrecord format used for training and evaluation.\n\n The script can be launched as \n \n ```python\n python dataset/preprocess_data.py -i /data/ -o /data/ -v\n ```\n \n5. Start training.\n \n After the Docker container is launched, the training of a single fold (fold 0) with the [default hyperparameters](#default-parameters) (for example 1/8 GPUs TF-AMP/FP32/TF32) can be started with:\n \n ```bash\n bash scripts/unet3d_train_single{_TF-AMP}.sh \n ```\n \n For example, to run with 32-bit precision (FP32 or TF32) with batch size 2 on 1 GPU, simply use:\n \n ```bash\n bash scripts/unet3d_train_single.sh 1 /data/preprocessed /results 2\n ```\n \n to train a single fold with mixed precision (TF-AMP) with on 8 GPUs batch size 2 per GPU, use:\n \n ```bash\n bash scripts/unet3d_train_single_TF-AMP.sh 8 /data/preprocessed /results 2\n ```\n The obtained dice scores will be reported after the training has finished.\n \n6. Start benchmarking.\n \n The training performance can be evaluated by using benchmarking scripts, such as:\n \n ```bash\n bash scripts/unet3d_{train,infer}_benchmark{_TF-AMP}.sh \n ```\n \n which will make the model run and report the performance. For example, to benchmark training with TF-AMP with batch size 2 on 4 GPUs, use:\n \n ```bash\n bash scripts/unet3d_train_benchmark_TF-AMP.sh 4 /data/preprocessed /results 2\n ```\n \n to obtain inference performance with 32-bit precision (FP32 or TF32) with batch size 1, use:\n \n ```bash\n bash scripts/unet3d_infer_benchmark.sh /data/preprocessed /results 1\n ```","hasQuickStartGuide","advanced","The following sections provide greater details of the dataset, running training and inference, and the training results.\n \n### Scripts and sample code\n \nIn the root directory, the most important files are:\n* `main.py`: Serves as the entry point to the application. Encapsulates the training routine.\n* `Dockerfile`: Container with the basic set of dependencies to run U-Net.\n* `requirements.txt`: Set of extra requirements for running U-Net.\n* `preprocess_data.py`: Converts the dataset to tfrecord format for training.\n \nThe `dataset/` folder contains the necessary tools to train and perform inference using U-Net. Its main components are:\n* `data_loader.py`: Implements the data loading and augmentation.\n* `transforms.py`: Implements the data augmentation functions.\n* `preprocess_data.py`: Implements the data conversion and pre-processing functionality.\n \nThe `runtime/` folder contains scripts with training and inference logic. Its contents are:\n* `arguments.py`: Implements the command-line arguments parsing.\n* `hooks.py`: Collects different metrics to be used for benchmarking and testing.\n* `parse_results.py`: Defines a set of functions used for parsing the partial results.\n* `setup.py`: Defines a set of functions to set the environment up.\n \n The `model/` folder contains information about the building blocks of 3D-UNet and the way they are assembled. Its contents are:\n* `layers.py`: Defines the different blocks that are used to assemble 3D-UNet.\n* `losses.py`: Defines the different losses used during training and evaluation.\n* `model_fn.py`: Defines the computational graph to optimize.\n* `unet3d.py`: Defines the model architecture using the blocks from the `layers.py` file.\n\nOther folders included in the root directory are:\n* `scripts/`: Provides examples for training and benchmarking U-Net\n* `images/`: Contains the model diagram\n \n### Parameters\n \nThe complete list of the available parameters for the main.py script contains:\n* `--exec_mode`: Select the execution mode to run the model (default: `train`). Modes available:\n * `train` - trains a model and stores checkpoints in the directory passed using `--model_dir`\n * `evaluate` - loads checkpoint (if available) and performs evaluation on validation subset (requires `--fold` other than `None`).\n * `train_and_evaluate` - trains model from scratch and performs validation at the end (requires `--fold` other than `None`).\n * `predict` - loads checkpoint (if available) and runs inference on the test set. Stores the results in the `--model_dir` directory.\n * `train_and_predict` - trains model from scratch and performs inference.\n* `--model_dir`: Set the output directory for information related to the model (default: `/results`).\n* `--log_dir`: Set the output directory for logs (default: None).\n* `--data_dir`: Set the input directory containing the dataset (default: `None`).\n* `--batch_size`: Size of each minibatch per GPU (default: `1`).\n* `--fold`: Selected fold for cross-validation (default: `None`).\n* `--max_steps`: Maximum number of steps (batches) for training (default: `16000`).\n* `--seed`: Set random seed for reproducibility (default: `0`).\n* `--log_every`: Log performance every n steps (default: `100`).\n* `--learning_rate`: Model's learning rate (default: `0.0002`).\n* `--augment`: Enable data augmentation (disabled by default).\n* `--benchmark`: Enable performance benchmarking (disabled by default). If the flag is set, the script runs in a benchmark mode - each iteration is timed and the performance result (in images per second) is printed at the end. Works for both `train` and `predict` execution modes.\n* `--warmup_steps`: Used during benchmarking - the number of steps to skip (default: `200`). First iterations are usually much slower since the graph is being constructed. Skipping the initial iterations is required for a fair performance assessment.\n* `--resume_training`: Whether to resume training from a checkpoint, if there is one (disabled by default)\n* `--xla`: Enable accelerated linear algebra optimization (disabled by default).\n* `--amp`: Enable automatic mixed precision (disabled by default).\n \n### Command line options\n \nTo see the full list of available options and their descriptions, use the `-h` or `--help` command-line option, for example:\n```bash\npython main.py --help\n```\n \nThe following example output is printed when running the model:\n```python main.py --help\nusage: main.py [-h] --data_dir DATA_DIR --model_dir MODEL_DIR\n [--exec_mode {train,evaluate,train_and_evaluate,predict}]\n [--benchmark] [--max_steps MAX_STEPS]\n [--learning_rate LEARNING_RATE] [--log_every LOG_EVERY]\n [--log_dir LOG_DIR] [--loss {dice,ce,dice+ce}]\n [--warmup_steps WARMUP_STEPS][--resume_training] \n [--augment] [--batch_size BATCH_SIZE] [--fold FOLD] \n [--amp] [--xla]\n \nUNet-3D\n \noptional arguments:\n -h, --help show this help message and exit\n --model_dir MODEL_DIR\n Output directory for information related to the model\n --data_dir DATA_DIR Input directory containing the dataset for training\n the model\n --exec_mode {train,train_and_predict,predict,evaluate,train_and_evaluate}\n Execution mode of running the model\n --log_dir LOG_DIR Output directory for training logs\n --batch_size BATCH_SIZE\n Size of each minibatch per GPU\n --learning_rate LEARNING_RATE\n Learning rate coefficient for AdamOptimizer\n --fold Fold number\n Chosen fold for cross-validation. Use None to disable\n cross-validation\n --max_steps MAX_STEPS\n Maximum number of steps (batches) used for training\n --log_every LOG_EVERY\n Log performance every n steps\n --warmup_steps WARMUP_STEPS\n Number of warmup steps\n --resume_training Whether to resume training from the checkpoint\n --seed SEED Random seed\n --augment Perform data augmentation during training\n --benchmark Collect performance metrics during training\n --amp Train using TF-AMP\n --xla Train using XLA\n```\n\n### Getting the data\n \nThe 3D-UNet model was trained in the [Brain Tumor Segmentation 2019 dataset](https://www.med.upenn.edu/cbica/brats-2019/). Test images provided by the organization were used to produce the resulting masks for submission. Upon registration, the challenge's data is made available through the https//ipp.cbica.upenn.edu service.\n \nThe dataset consists of 335 240x240x155 `nifti` volumes. Each volume is represented by 4 modalities and a corresponding segmentation mask. \nThe modalities are:\n* Native T1-weighted (T1),\n* Post-contrast T1-weighted (T1Gd),\n* Native T2-weighted (T2),\n* T2 Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery (FLAIR).\n\nEach voxel in a segmentation mask belongs to one of four classes:\n* 0 corresponds to healthy tissue or background,\n* 1 indicates the presence of the necrotic and non-enhancing tumor core (TC),\n* 2 indicates the presence of the peritumoral edema (ED),\n* 4 indicates the presence of the GD-enhancing tumor (ET).\n \nThe objective is to produce a set of masks that segment the data as accurately as possible. The results are expected to be submitted as a 12-bit `nifti` 3D image, with values corresponding to the underlying class.\n \n#### Dataset guidelines\n \nThe training and test datasets are given as 3D `nifti` volumes that can be read using the Nibabel library and NumPy (both packages are installed by the `Dockerfile`).\n \nInitially, all modalities are loaded, stacked and converted into 240x240x155x4 NumPy arrays using Nibabel. To decrease the size of the dataset, each volume is clipped to 85% of the maximal value, normalized to 255 for each modality separately, casted to 8-bit, grouped by 4 volumes, and saved as a `tfrecord` file. The process of converting from `nifti` to `tfrecord` can be found in the `preprocess_data.py` script.\n \nThe `tfrecord` files are fed to the model through `tf.data.TFRecordDataset()` to achieve high performance.\n \nThe foreground voxel intensities then z-score normalized, whereas labels are one-hot encoded for their later use in dice or pixel-wise cross-entropy loss, becoming 240x240x155x4 tensors.\n \nIf augmentation is enabled, the following set of augmentation techniques are applied:\n* Random horizontal flipping\n* Random 128x128x128x4 crop\n* Random brightness shifting\n \nIn addition, random vertical flip and random gamma correction augmentations were implemented, but are not used. The process of loading, normalizing and augmenting the data contained in the dataset can be found in the `data_loader.py` script.\n \n#### Multi-dataset\n \nThis implementation is tuned for the Brain Tumor Segmentation 2019 dataset. Using other datasets is possible, but might require changes to the code (data loader) and tuning some hyperparameters (e.g. learning rate, number of iterations).\n \nIn the current implementation, the data loader works with tfrecord files. It should work seamlessly with any dataset containing 3D data stored in tfrecord format, as long as features (with corresponding mean and standard deviation) and labels are stored as bytestream in the same file as `X`, `Y`, `mean`, and `stdev`. See the data pre-processing script for details. If your data is stored in a different format, you will have to modify the parsing function in the `dataset/data_loader.py` file. For a walk-through, check the [TensorFlow tf.data API guide](https://www.tensorflow.org/guide/data_performance)","hasAdvanced","performance","The performance measurements in this document were conducted at the time of publication and may not reflect the performance achieved from NVIDIA's latest software release. For the most up-to-date performance measurements, go to [NVIDIA Data Center Deep Learning Product Performance](https://developer.nvidia.com/deep-learning-performance-training-inference).\n \n### Benchmarking\n \nThe following section shows how to run benchmarks measuring the model performance in training and inference modes.\n \n#### Training performance benchmark\n \nTo benchmark training, run one of the `train_benchmark` scripts in `./scripts/`:\n```bash\nbash scripts/unet3d_train_benchmark{_TF-AMP}.sh \n```\nFor example, to benchmark training using mixed-precision on 4 GPUs with batch size of 2 use:\n```bash\nbash scripts/unet3d_train_benchmark_TF-AMP.sh 4 2\n```\n \nEach of these scripts will by default run 40 warm-up iterations and benchmark the performance during training in the next 40 iterations.\n \nTo have more control, you can run the script by directly providing all relevant run parameters. For example:\n```bash\nhorovodrun -np python main.py --exec_mode train --benchmark --augment --data_dir --model_dir --batch_size --warmup_steps --max_steps \n```\n \nAt the end of the script, a line reporting the best train throughput will be printed.\n \n#### Inference performance benchmark\n \nTo benchmark inference, run one of the scripts in `./scripts/`:\n```bash\nbash scripts/unet3d_infer_benchmark{_TF-AMP}.sh \n```\n \nFor example, to benchmark inference using mixed-precision with batch size 4:\n```bash\nbash scripts/unet3d_infer_benchmark_TF-AMP.sh 4\n```\n \nEach of these scripts will by default run 20 warm-up iterations and benchmark the performance during inference in the next 20 iterations.\n \nTo have more control, you can run the script by directly providing all relevant run parameters. For example:\n```bash\npython main.py --exec_mode predict --benchmark --data_dir --model_dir --batch_size --warmup_steps --max_steps \n```\n \nAt the end of the script, a line reporting the best inference throughput will be printed.\n\n### Results\n \nThe following sections provide details on how we achieved our performance and accuracy of training and inference.\n \n#### Training accuracy results\n \nTo reproduce this result, start the Docker container interactively and run one of the train scripts:\n```bash\nbash scripts/unet3d_train_full{_TF-AMP}.sh \n```\n for example to train using 8 GPUs and batch size of 2:\n```bash\nbash scripts/unet3d_train_full_TF-AMP.sh 8 /data/preprocessed /results 2\n```\n\nThis command will launch a script which will run 5-fold cross-validation training for 16,000 iterations on each fold and print:\n * the validation DICE scores for each class: Tumor Core (TC), Peritumoral Edema (ED), Enhancing Tumor (ET),\n * the mean DICE score,\n * the whole tumor (WT) which represents a binary classification case (tumor vs background).\n \nThe time reported is for one fold, which means that the training of 5 folds will take 5 times longer. The default batch size is 2, however if you have less than 16 GB memory card and you encounter GPU memory issues you should decrease the batch size. The logs of the runs can be found in the `/results` directory once the script is finished.\n\n##### Training accuracy: NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 80G)\n \nThe following table lists the average DICE score across 5-fold cross-validation. Our results were obtained by running the `scripts/unet3d_train_full{_TF-AMP}.sh` training script in the `tensorflow:21.10-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 80G) GPUs.\n \n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | DICE - TF32 | DICE - mixed precision | Time to train - FP32 | Time to train - mixed precision | Time to train speedup (FP32 to mixed precision) |\n|---|---|--------|--------|--------|--------|------|\n| 8 | 2 | 0.8818 | 0.8819 | 8 min | 7 min | 1.14 |\n\n##### Training accuracy: NVIDIA DGX-1 (8x V100 16G)\n \nThe following table lists the average DICE score across 5-fold cross-validation. Our results were obtained by running the `scripts/unet3d_train_full{_TF-AMP}.sh` training script in the `tensorflow:21.10-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 (8x V100 16G) GPUs.\n \n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | DICE - FP32 | DICE - mixed precision | Time to train - FP32 | Time to train - mixed precision | Time to train speedup (FP32 to mixed precision) |\n|---|---|--------|--------|--------|--------|------|\n| 8 | 2 | 0.8818 | 0.8819 | 33 min | 13 min | 2.54 |\n\n#### Training performance results\n\n##### Training performance: NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 80G)\n \nOur results were obtained by running the `scripts/unet3d_train_benchmark{_TF-AMP}.sh` training script in the `tensorflow:21.10-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 with (8x A100 80G) GPUs. Performance numbers (in volumes per second) were averaged over 80 iterations, excluding the first 40 warm-up steps.\n \n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Throughput - TF32 [img/s] | Throughput - mixed precision [img/s] | Throughput speedup (FP32 - mixed precision) | Weak scaling - FP32 | Weak scaling - mixed precision | \n|---|---|--------|--------|------|------|------|\n| 1 | 2 | 10.40 | 17.91 | 1.72 | N/A | N/A |\n| 1 | 4 | 10.66 | 19.88 | 1.86 | N/A | N/A |\n| 1 | 8 | 3.99 | 20.89 | 5.23 | N/A | N/A |\n| 8 | 2 | 81.71 | 100.24 | 1.23 | 7.85 | 5.60 |\n| 8 | 4 | 80.65 | 140.44 | 1.74 | 7.56 | 7.06 |\n| 8 | 8 | 29.79 | 137.61 | 4.62 | 7.47 | 6.59 |\n\n##### Training performance: NVIDIA DGX-1 (8x V100 16G)\n \nOur results were obtained by running the `scripts/unet3d_train_benchmark{_TF-AMP}.sh` training script in the `tensorflow:21.10-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with (8x V100 16G) GPUs. Performance numbers (in volumes per second) were averaged over 80 iterations, excluding the first 40 warm-up steps.\n \n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Throughput - FP32 [img/s] | Throughput - mixed precision [img/s] | Throughput speedup (FP32 - mixed precision) | Weak scaling - FP32 | Weak scaling - mixed precision | \n|---|---|-------|-------|------|------|------|\n| 1 | 1 | 1.87 | 7.45 | 3.98 | N/A | N/A |\n| 1 | 2 | 2.32 | 8.79 | 3.79 | N/A | N/A |\n| 8 | 1 | 14.49 | 46.88 | 3.23 | 7.75 | 6.29 |\n| 8 | 2 | 18.06 | 58.30 | 3.23 | 7.78 | 6.63 |\n\nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Training performance benchmark](#training-performance-benchmark) section.\n \n#### Inference performance results\n\n##### Inference performance: NVIDIA DGX A100 (1x A100 80G)\n \nOur results were obtained by running the `scripts/unet3d_infer_benchmark{_TF-AMP}.sh` inference benchmarking script in the `tensorflow:21.10-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 with (1x A100 80G) GPU. Performance numbers (in volumes per second) were averaged over 40 iterations, excluding the first 20 warm-up steps.\n \nFP16\n \n| Batch size | Resolution | Throughput Avg [img/s] | Latency Avg [ms] | Latency 90% [ms] | Latency 95% [ms] | Latency 99% [ms] |\n|---|---------------|-------|--------|--------|--------|--------|\n| 1 | 224x224x160x4 | 15.58 | 67.32 | 68.63 | 78.00 | 109.42 |\n| 2 | 224x224x160x4 | 15.81 | 129.06 | 129.93 | 135.31 | 166.62 |\n| 4 | 224x224x160x4 | 8.34 | 479.47 | 482.55 | 487.68 | 494.80 |\n\nTF32\n \n| Batch size | Resolution | Throughput Avg [img/s] | Latency Avg [ms] | Latency 90% [ms] | Latency 95% [ms] | Latency 99% [ms] |\n|---|---------------|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|\n| 1 | 224x224x160x4 | 9.42 | 106.22 | 106.68 | 107.67 | 122.73 |\n| 2 | 224x224x160x4 | 4.69 | 427.13 | 428.33 | 428.76 | 429.19 |\n| 4 | 224x224x160x4 | 2.32 | 1723.79 | 1725.77 | 1726.30 | 1728.23 |\n \nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Inference performance benchmark](#inference-performance-benchmark) section.\n\n##### Inference performance: NVIDIA DGX-1 (1x V100 16G)\n \nOur results were obtained by running the `scripts/unet3d_infer_benchmark{_TF-AMP}.sh` inference benchmarking script in the `tensorflow:21.10-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with (1x V100 16G) GPU. Performance numbers (in volumes per second) were averaged over 40 iterations, excluding the first 20 warm-up steps.\n \nFP16\n \n| Batch size | Resolution | Throughput Avg [img/s] | Latency Avg [ms] | Latency 90% [ms] | Latency 95% [ms] | Latency 99% [ms] |\n|---|---------------|------|--------|--------|--------|--------|\n| 1 | 224x224x160x4 | 7.64 | 136.81 | 138.94 | 143.59 | 152.74 |\n| 2 | 224x224x160x4 | 7.75 | 260.66 | 267.07 | 270.88 | 274.44 |\n| 4 | 224x224x160x4 | 4.78 | 838.52 | 842.88 | 843.30 | 844.62 |\n \nFP32\n \n| Batch size | Resolution | Throughput Avg [img/s] | Latency Avg [ms] | Latency 90% [ms] | Latency 95% [ms] | Latency 99% [ms] |\n|---|---------------|------|--------|--------|--------|--------|\n| 1 | 224x224x160x4 | 2.30 | 434.95 | 436.82 | 437.40 | 438.48 |\n| 2 | 224x224x160x4 | 2.40 | 834.99 | 837.22 | 837.51 | 838.18 |\n| 4 | 224x224x160x4 | OOM | | | | |\n \nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Inference performance benchmark](#inference-performance-benchmark) section.","hasPerformance","policies",[],{"_76":21,"_78":198,"_169":-5,"_175":31,"_177":31,"_193":197,"_180":86},{"_76":23,"_78":23,"_169":-5,"_175":31,"_177":31,"_193":197,"_180":86},[],"Latest (21.10.0)","nvidia/dle/unet_3d-medical_tf1","key","nvidia/dle/resources/unet_3d-medical_tf1","resourceType","resources","resourceId","unet_3d-medical_tf1","shortDescription","A convolutional neural network for 3D image segmentation.","This resource is using open-source code maintained in github (see the quick-start-guide section) and available for download from [NGC](https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com/orgs/nvidia/teams/dle/resources/unet3dmed-tf1)\n\n \nThe U-Net model is a convolutional neural network for 3D image segmentation. This repository contains a 3D-UNet implementation introduced in [3D U-Net: Learning Dense Volumetric Segmentation from Sparse Annotation](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1606.06650), with modifications described in [No New-Net](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1809.10483).\n \nThis model is trained with mixed precision using Tensor Cores on Volta, Turing, and the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architectures. Therefore, researchers can get results up to 2.3x faster than training without Tensor Cores, while experiencing the benefits of mixed precision training. This model is tested against each NGC monthly container release to ensure consistent accuracy and performance over time.\n\n### Model architecture\n \n3D-UNet was first introduced by Olaf Ronneberger, Philip Fischer, and Thomas Brox in the paper: [3D U-Net: Learning Dense Volumetric Segmentation from Sparse Annotation](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1606.06650). In this repository we host a 3D-UNet version adapted by Fabian Isensee et al. to brain tumor segmentation. 3D-UNet allows for seamless segmentation of 3D volumes, with high accuracy and performance, and can be adapted to solve many different segmentation problems.\n \nThe following figure shows the construction of the 3D-UNet model and its different components. 3D-UNet is composed of a contractive and an expanding path, that aims at building a bottleneck in its centermost part through a combination of convolution and pooling operations. After this bottleneck, the image is reconstructed through a combination of convolutions and upsampling. Skip connections are added with the goal of helping the backward flow of gradients in order to improve the training.\n \n![U-Net3D](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/NVIDIA/DeepLearningExamples/master/TensorFlow/Segmentation/UNet_3D_Medical//images/unet3d.png)\n\n \n### Default configuration\n \n3D-UNet consists of a contractive (left-side) and expanding (right-side) path. It repeatedly applies unpadded convolutions followed by max pooling for downsampling. Every step in the expanding path consists of an upsampling of the feature maps and a concatenation with the correspondingly cropped feature map from the contractive path.\n \n### Feature support matrix\n \nThe following features are supported by this model.\n \n| **Feature** | **3D-UNet** |\n|---------------------------------|-----|\n| Automatic mixed precision (AMP) | Yes |\n| Horovod Multi-GPU (NCCL) | Yes |\n| Accelerated Linear Algebra (XLA)| Yes |\n \n#### Features\n \n**Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP)**\n \nThis implementation of 3D-UNet uses AMP to implement mixed precision training. Computation graphs can be modified by TensorFlow on runtime to support mixed precision training. Detailed explanation of mixed precision can be found in the next section.\n \n**Horovod**\n \nHorovod is a distributed training framework for TensorFlow, Keras, PyTorch, and MXNet. The goal of Horovod is to make distributed deep learning fast and easy to use. For more information about how to get started with Horovod, see the [Horovod: Official repository](https://github.com/horovod/horovod).\n \nMulti-GPU training with Horovod\n \nOur model uses Horovod to implement efficient multi-GPU training with NCCL. For details, see example sources in this repository or see the [TensorFlow tutorial](https://github.com/horovod/horovod/#usage).\n \n**XLA support (experimental)**\n \nXLA is a domain-specific compiler for linear algebra that can accelerate TensorFlow models with potentially no source code changes. The results are improvements in speed and memory usage: most internal benchmarks run ~1.1-1.5x faster after XLA is enabled.\n \n### Mixed precision training\n \nMixed precision is the combined use of different numerical precisions in a computational method. [Mixed precision](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) training offers significant computational speedup by performing operations in half-precision format while storing minimal information in single-precision to retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network. Since the introduction of [Tensor Cores](https://developer.nvidia.com/tensor-cores) in Volta, and following with both the Turing and Ampere architectures, significant training speedups are experienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup on the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using [mixed precision training](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/performance/mixed-precision-training/index.html) previously required two steps:\n1. Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate. \n2. Adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.\n\nThis can now be achieved using Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP) for TensorFlow to enable the full [mixed precision methodology](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html#tensorflow) in your existing TensorFlow model code. AMP enables mixed precision training on Volta, Turing, and NVIDIA Ampere GPU architectures automatically. The TensorFlow framework code makes all necessary model changes internally.\n\nIn TF-AMP, the computational graph is optimized to use as few casts as necessary and maximize the use of FP16, and the loss scaling is automatically applied inside of supported optimizers. AMP can be configured to work with the existing tf.contrib loss scaling manager by disabling the AMP scaling with a single environment variable to perform only the automatic mixed-precision optimization. It accomplishes this by automatically rewriting all computation graphs with the necessary operations to enable mixed precision training and automatic loss scaling.\n\nFor information about:\n- How to train using mixed precision, see the [Mixed Precision Training](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) paper and [Training With Mixed Precision](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/performance/mixed-precision-training/index.html) documentation.\n- Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the [Mixed-Precision Training of Deep Neural Networks](https://devblogs.nvidia.com/mixed-precision-training-deep-neural-networks/) blog.\n- How to access and enable AMP for TensorFlow, see [Using TF-AMP](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/tensorflow-user-guide/index.html#tfamp) from the TensorFlow User Guide.\n\n#### Enabling mixed precision\n \nMixed precision is enabled in TensorFlow by using the Automatic Mixed Precision (TF-AMP) extension which casts variables to half-precision upon retrieval, while storing variables in single-precision format. Furthermore, to preserve small gradient magnitudes in backpropagation, a [loss scaling](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html#lossscaling) step must be included when applying gradients. In TensorFlow, loss scaling can be applied statically by using simple multiplication of loss by a constant value or automatically, by TF-AMP. Automatic mixed precision makes all the adjustments internally in TensorFlow, providing two benefits over manual operations. First, programmers need not modify network model code, reducing development and maintenance effort. Second, using AMP maintains forward and backward compatibility with all the APIs for defining and running TensorFlow models.\n\nTo enable mixed precision, you can simply add the values to the environmental variable inside your training script:\n ```\n os.environ['TF_ENABLE_AUTO_MIXED_PRECISION'] = '1'\n ```\nExporting these variables ensures that loss scaling is performed correctly and automatically.\nBy supplying the `--amp` flag to the `main.py` script while training in FP32/TF32, the following variables are set to their correct value for mixed precision training:\n```\nif params.amp:\n os.environ['TF_ENABLE_AUTO_MIXED_PRECISION'] = '1'\n```\n\n#### Enabling TF32\n\nTensorFloat-32 (TF32) is the new math mode in [NVIDIA A100](#https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/) GPUs for handling the matrix math also called tensor operations. TF32 running on Tensor Cores in A100 GPUs can provide up to 10x speedups compared to single-precision floating-point math (FP32) on Volta GPUs. \n\nTF32 Tensor Cores can speed up networks using FP32, typically with no loss of accuracy. It is more robust than FP16 for models which require high dynamic range for weights or activations.\n\nFor more information, refer to the [TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x](#https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2020/05/14/tensorfloat-32-precision-format/) blog post.\n\nTF32 is supported in the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architecture and is enabled by default.","displayName","3D-UNet Medical Image Segmentation for TensorFlow1",["D",1667525242966],"publisher","NVIDIA Deep Learning Examples","latestVersion","versions","collectionCounts","imageUrl","/api/image/nvidia/dle/resources/unet_3d-medical_tf1","rawImageUrl","https://assets.nvidiagrid.net/ngc/logos/Deep-Learning-Examples.png","canGuestDownload","latestVersionSizeInBytes","licenseTerms","isMultinodeEnabled","isMultiArchitecture","bias","explainability","privacy","safetyAndSecurity","featureLabels",[],"displayLabels",[],"policyLabels",[],"systemLabels",[],"products",[],"hasNimMetadata",{"_107":1221,"_109":1222},"ngcApps",[1174],"csaApiBaseUrl","https://www.nvidia.com/ai-agents/csa-agent/dcsm","datadogRum",{"_1155":1156,"_1157":1158,"_1159":1160,"_1161":1162,"_1163":252,"_138":276,"_1164":1165,"_1166":56,"_1167":86,"_1168":86,"_1169":1170,"_1171":86,"_1172":1173},"amplitude",{"_1152":1153,"_788":-7,"_1154":31},"disableJs","environment","prod","featureFlagsBlob","JTdCJTIydGVzdEZsYWclMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMnNob3dTZWFyY2hMYWJlbFNldEZpbHRlcnMlMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMmVuYWJsZUNzYVdpZGdldCUyMiUzQWZhbHNlJTJDJTIyZW5hYmxlUHJvZHVjdEdyb3VwaW5nQnlTdWJzY3JpcHRpb24lMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMmNvbnRhaW5lclNjYW5uaW5nUmVkZXNpZ25NMSUyMiUzQXRydWUlN0Q=","featureFlagsGuarded","isDevLikeEnv","isPlaywright","isMobileDevice","categorizedOrgs",{"_1146":1147,"_1148":1149,"_1150":1151},"currentOrgContext","currentContextRoles",[],"enterpriseOrgs",[],"locale","en","ngcApiOrigin","ngcHelmOrigin","origin","https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com","usesMocks","theme","year",2026,"1.10.0","defaultSearchSuggestions",{"_1028":356,"_1029":1030,"_1031":1032,"_1033":1034},"announcements",[],"consentState",{"_313":1018,"_1019":86,"_1020":31,"_1021":31,"_1022":1023},"consentConfig",{"_295":296,"_297":298,"_299":300,"_301":302,"_303":304,"_305":306,"_307":308,"_309":310,"_311":312,"_313":314},"showContactAdmin",1785224521502,[],[],[290,291,292,293,294],{"_45":60,"_47":70,"_49":102,"_51":-5,"_53":-5,"_55":56},{"_45":60,"_47":69,"_49":102,"_51":-5,"_53":-5,"_55":56},{"_45":60,"_47":61,"_49":102,"_51":-5,"_53":-5,"_55":56},{"_45":57,"_47":58,"_49":102,"_51":-5,"_53":-5,"_55":56},{"_45":46,"_47":48,"_49":50,"_51":52,"_53":59,"_55":56},"mainInfoText","We and our third-party partners (including social media, advertising, and analytics partners) use cookies and other tracking technologies to collect, store, monitor, and process certain information about you when you visit our website. 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They are capable of tracking your browser across other sites and building up a profile of your interests. This may impact the content and messages you see on other websites you visit. If you do not allow these cookies you may not be able to use or see these sharing tools.","alwaysActive","order",11,"cookies",[],"hosts",[],"C0004","Advertising Cookies","These cookies record your visit to our websites, the pages you have visited and the links you have followed to influence the advertisements that you see on other websites. These cookies and the information they collect may be managed by other companies, including our advertising partners, and may be used to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant advertising on other sites. We and our advertising partners will use this information to make our websites and the advertising displayed on it, more relevant to your interests.",5,[453,454,455,456,457,458,459,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,470,471,472,473,474],[337,338,339,340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,352,353],{"_354":448,"_209":448,"_167":356,"_327":449},{"_354":444,"_209":444,"_167":356,"_327":445},{"_354":439,"_209":439,"_167":356,"_327":440},{"_354":435,"_209":435,"_167":356,"_327":436},{"_354":430,"_209":430,"_167":356,"_327":431},{"_354":425,"_209":425,"_167":356,"_327":426},{"_354":417,"_209":417,"_167":356,"_327":418},{"_354":409,"_209":409,"_167":356,"_327":410},{"_354":404,"_209":404,"_167":356,"_327":405},{"_354":399,"_209":399,"_167":356,"_327":400},{"_354":394,"_209":394,"_167":356,"_327":395},{"_354":389,"_209":389,"_167":356,"_327":390},{"_354":384,"_209":384,"_167":356,"_327":385},{"_354":377,"_209":377,"_167":356,"_327":378},{"_354":372,"_209":372,"_167":356,"_327":373},{"_354":365,"_209":365,"_167":356,"_327":366},{"_354":355,"_209":355,"_167":356,"_327":357},"hostName","amazon-adsystem.com","",[358,359],{"_78":364,"_361":355,"_362":31,"_167":363},{"_78":360,"_361":355,"_362":31,"_167":363},"ad-privacy","host","isSession","This domain is owned by online retailer Amazon and is used as part of its affiliate marketing programme.","ad-id","doubleclick.net",[367,368],{"_78":371,"_361":365,"_362":31,"_167":370},{"_78":369,"_361":365,"_362":31,"_167":370},"IDE","This domain is owned by Doubleclick (Google). 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This tracking cookie allows a website to link visitor behaviour to the recipient of an email marketing campaign, to measure campaign effectiveness.","investor.nvidia.com","This cookie is associated with Eventbrite and is used to deliver content tailored to the end user's interests and improve content creation. This cookie is also used for event-booking purposes.","_gat_gtag_UA_140825383_2","Google Analytics","_rdt_uuid","This cookie is set by Reddit and is used for tracking the views of embedded videos and performance of the advertisements.","catalog.ngc.nvidia.com","_uetsid","This cookie is used by Bing to determine what ads should be shown that may be relevant to the end user perusing the site. 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It helps track your activity on the platform, including how you interact with their embedded services on other websites.","C0003","Personalization Cookies","These cookies collect data about how you have interacted with our website to help us improve your web experience, such as which pages you have visited. These cookies may store a unique ID so that our system will remember you when you return. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. These cookies enable us to provide enhanced website functionality and personalization as well as make the marketing messages we send to you more relevant to your interests. If you do not allow these cookies, then some or all of these services may not function properly.",[545,546,547,548,549,550,551,552,553,554,555,556,557,558,559,560,561,562,563,564,565,566,567,568,569],[516,517,518,519,520],{"_354":430,"_209":430,"_167":356,"_327":540},{"_354":404,"_209":404,"_167":356,"_327":535},{"_354":530,"_209":530,"_167":356,"_327":531},{"_354":525,"_209":525,"_167":356,"_327":526},{"_354":521,"_209":521,"_167":356,"_327":522},"nvidia.partners",[523],{"_78":524,"_361":521,"_362":31,"_167":398},"edge","app.hushly.com",[527],{"_78":528,"_361":525,"_362":31,"_167":529},"*CORS","This domain is associated with Hushly, a platform that provides lead conversion solutions for content marketing by using personalization and content engagement strategies.","github.com",[532],{"_78":533,"_361":530,"_362":31,"_167":534},"_octo","This domain is owned by Github. 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These cookies may store a unique ID so that our system will remember you when you return. Information collected with these cookies is used to measure and find ways to improve website performance.",[628,629,630,631,632,633,634,635,636,637,638,639,640,641,642,643,644,645,646,647,648,649,650,651,652,653,654,655,656],[608,609,610,611],{"_354":623,"_209":623,"_167":356,"_327":624},{"_354":618,"_209":618,"_167":356,"_327":619},{"_354":417,"_209":417,"_167":356,"_327":615},{"_354":530,"_209":530,"_167":356,"_327":612},[613],{"_78":614,"_361":530,"_362":86,"_167":534},"_gh_sess",[616],{"_78":617,"_361":417,"_362":86,"_167":424},"YSC","bizible.com",[620],{"_78":621,"_361":618,"_362":31,"_167":622},"_BUID","Bizible is a marketing attribution software that tracks the performance of marketing efforts and connects them to revenue, primarily used for B2B environments.","a.usbrowserspeed.com",[625],{"_78":626,"_361":623,"_362":31,"_167":627},"tuid","This domain is owned by Ookla which provides internet speed testing services through its Speedtest application.",{"_78":698,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":699},{"_78":683,"_361":697,"_362":86,"_167":684},{"_78":666,"_361":479,"_362":31,"_167":591},{"_78":666,"_361":579,"_362":31,"_167":591},{"_78":695,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":696},{"_78":683,"_361":482,"_362":86,"_167":684},{"_78":693,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":694},{"_78":683,"_361":479,"_362":86,"_167":684},{"_78":691,"_361":578,"_362":31,"_167":692},{"_78":683,"_361":600,"_362":86,"_167":684},{"_78":663,"_361":479,"_362":31,"_167":665},{"_78":689,"_361":476,"_362":86,"_167":690},{"_78":687,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":688},{"_78":685,"_361":476,"_362":86,"_167":686},{"_78":683,"_361":574,"_362":86,"_167":684},{"_78":681,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":682},{"_78":679,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":680},{"_78":677,"_361":476,"_362":86,"_167":678},{"_78":675,"_361":583,"_362":31,"_167":676},{"_78":663,"_361":574,"_362":31,"_167":665},{"_78":673,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":674},{"_78":671,"_361":476,"_362":86,"_167":672},{"_78":669,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":670},{"_78":667,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":668},{"_78":666,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":591},{"_78":663,"_361":664,"_362":31,"_167":665},{"_78":661,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":662},{"_78":659,"_361":476,"_362":86,"_167":660},{"_78":657,"_361":476,"_362":31,"_167":658},"_ga_xxxxxxxxxx","Used by Google Analytics to identify and track an individual session with your device.","s_ppvl","This cookie is set by Adobe Analytics to store information on the percentage of the page displayed to the end user.","coveo_visitorId","This cookie name is associated with Coveo which is used to store a unique user ID for marketing purposes and to track the number of distinct users who submitted a query or clicked an item, counting them only once even if they did the same query or clicked the same item over the course of many visits.","_dd_s","marketplace.nvidia.com","Datadog Cookie used to group all events generated from a unique user session across multiple pages. It contains the current session ID, whether the session is excluded due to sampling, and the expiration date of the session. The cookie is extended for an extra 15 minutes every time the user interacts with the website, up to the maximum user session duration (4 hours).","nvweb_A","_ga","This cookie name is associated with Google Universal Analytics - which is a significant update to Google's more commonly used analytics service. This cookie is used to distinguish unique users by assigning a randomly generated number as a client identifier. It is included in each page request in a site and used to calculate visitor, session and campaign data for the sites analytics reports. By default it is set to expire after 2 years, although this is customisable by website owners.","_uetvid","This is a cookie utilised by Microsoft Bing Ads and is a tracking cookie. 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