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This resource is using open-source code maintained in github (see the quick-start-guide section) and available for download from NGC

The UNet model is a convolutional neural network for 2D image segmentation. This repository contains a UNet implementation as described in the original paper UNet: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation, without any alteration.

This model is trained with mixed precision using Tensor Cores on Volta, Turing, and the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architectures. Therefore, researchers can get results 2.2x faster than training without Tensor Cores, while experiencing the benefits of mixed precision training. This model is tested against each NGC monthly container release to ensure consistent accuracy and performance over time.

Model architecture

UNet was first introduced by Olaf Ronneberger, Philip Fischer, and Thomas Brox in the paper: UNet: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation. UNet allows for seamless segmentation of 2D images, with high accuracy and performance, and can be adapted to solve many different segmentation problems.

The following figure shows the construction of the UNet model and its different components. UNet is composed of a contractive and an expanding path, that aims at building a bottleneck in its centermost part through a combination of convolution and pooling operations. After this bottleneck, the image is reconstructed through a combination of convolutions and upsampling. Skip connections are added with the goal of helping the backward flow of gradients in order to improve the training.

$\"UNet\"$

Figure 1. UNet architecture

Default configuration

UNet consists of a contractive (left-side) and expanding (right-side) path. It repeatedly applies unpadded convolutions followed by max pooling for downsampling. Every step in the expanding path consists of an upsampling of the feature maps and a concatenation with the correspondingly cropped feature map from the contractive path.

Feature support matrix

The following features are supported by this model.

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

tr:nth-child(odd)]:bg-surface-sunken\">

Feature	UNet Medical
Automatic mixed precision (AMP)	Yes
Horovod Multi-GPU (NCCL)	Yes
Accelerated Linear Algebra (XLA)	Yes

Features

Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP)

This implementation of UNet uses AMP to implement mixed precision training. It allows us to use FP16 training with FP32 master weights by modifying just a few lines of code.

Horovod

Horovod is a distributed training framework for TensorFlow, Keras, PyTorch, and MXNet. The goal of Horovod is to make distributed deep learning fast and easy to use. For more information about how to get started with Horovod, see the Horovod: Official repository.

Multi-GPU training with Horovod

Our model uses Horovod to implement efficient multi-GPU training with NCCL. For details, see example sources in this repository or see the TensorFlow tutorial.

XLA support (experimental)

XLA is a domain-specific compiler for linear algebra that can accelerate TensorFlow models with potentially no source code changes. The results are improvements in speed and memory usage: most internal benchmarks run ~1.1-1.5x faster after XLA is enabled.

Mixed precision training

Mixed precision is the combined use of different numerical precisions in a computational method. Mixed precision training offers significant computational speedup by performing operations in half-precision format while storing minimal information in single-precision to retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network. Since the introduction of Tensor Cores in the Volta and Turing architecture, significant training speedups are experienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup on the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using mixed precision training previously required two steps:

Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate.
Adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.

This can now be achieved using Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP) for TensorFlow to enable the full mixed precision methodology in your existing TensorFlow model code. AMP enables mixed precision training on Volta and Turing GPUs automatically. The TensorFlow framework code makes all necessary model changes internally.

In TF-AMP, the computational graph is optimized to use as few casts as necessary and maximize the use of FP16, and the loss scaling is automatically applied inside of supported optimizers. AMP can be configured to work with the existing tf.contrib loss scaling manager by disabling the AMP scaling with a single environment variable to perform only the automatic mixed-precision optimization. It accomplishes this by automatically rewriting all computation graphs with the necessary operations to enable mixed precision training and automatic loss scaling.

For information about:

How to train using mixed precision, see the Mixed Precision Training paper and Training With Mixed Precision documentation.
Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the Mixed-Precision Training of Deep Neural Networks blog.
How to access and enable AMP for TensorFlow, see Using TF-AMP from the TensorFlow User Guide.

Enabling mixed precision

Mixed precision is enabled in TensorFlow by using the Automatic Mixed Precision (TF-AMP) extension which casts variables to half-precision upon retrieval, while storing variables in single-precision format. Furthermore, to preserve small gradient magnitudes in backpropagation, a loss scaling step must be included when applying gradients. In TensorFlow, loss scaling can be applied statically by using simple multiplication of loss by a constant value or automatically, by TF-AMP. Automatic mixed precision makes all the adjustments internally in TensorFlow, providing two benefits over manual operations. First, programmers need not modify network model code, reducing development and maintenance effort. Second, using AMP maintains forward and backward compatibility with all the APIs for defining and running TensorFlow models.

To enable mixed precision, you can simply add the values to the environmental variables inside your training script:

Enable TF-AMP graph rewrite:

os.environ[\"TF_ENABLE_AUTO_MIXED_PRECISION_GRAPH_REWRITE\"] = \"1\"\n

Enable Automated Mixed Precision:

os.environ['TF_ENABLE_AUTO_MIXED_PRECISION'] = '1'\n

Enabling TF32

TensorFloat-32 (TF32) is the new math mode in NVIDIA A100 GPUs for handling the matrix math also called tensor operations. TF32 running on Tensor Cores in A100 GPUs can provide up to 10x speedups compared to single-precision floating-point math (FP32) on Volta GPUs.

TF32 Tensor Cores can speed up networks using FP32, typically with no loss of accuracy. It is more robust than FP16 for models which require high dynamic range for weights or activations.

For more information, refer to the TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x blog post.

TF32 is supported in the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architecture and is enabled by default.

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Aside from these dependencies, ensure you have the following components:\n- [NVIDIA Docker](https://github.com/NVIDIA/nvidia-docker)\n- TensorFlow 20.06-tf1-py3 [NGC container](https://ngc.nvidia.com/registry/nvidia-tensorflow)\n- GPU-based architecture:\n - [NVIDIA Volta](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/volta-gpu-architecture/)\n - [NVIDIA Turing](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/turing/)\n - [NVIDIA Ampere architecture](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/nvidia-ampere-gpu-architecture/)\n\nFor more information about how to get started with NGC containers, see the following sections from the NVIDIA GPU Cloud Documentation and the Deep Learning Documentation:\n- [Getting Started Using NVIDIA GPU Cloud](https://docs.nvidia.com/ngc/ngc-getting-started-guide/index.html)\n- [Accessing And Pulling From The NGC container registry](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/user-guide/index.html#accessing_registry)\n- [Running TensorFlow](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/tensorflow-release-notes/running.html#running)\n \nFor those unable to use the TensorFlow NGC container, to set up the required environment or create your own container, see the versioned [NVIDIA Container Support Matrix](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/frameworks/support-matrix/index.html).","hasSetup","quickStartGuide","To train your model using mixed precision with Tensor Cores or using FP32, perform the following steps using the default parameters of the UNet model on the [EM segmentation challenge dataset](http://brainiac2.mit.edu/isbi_challenge/home). These steps enable you to build the UNet TensorFlow NGC container, train and evaluate your model, and generate predictions on the test data. Furthermore, you can then choose to:\n* compare your evaluation accuracy with our [Training accuracy results](#training-accuracy-results),\n* compare your training performance with our [Training performance benchmark](#training-performance-benchmark),\n* compare your inference performance with our [Inference performance benchmark](#inference-performance-benchmark).\n \nFor the specifics concerning training and inference, see the [Advanced](#advanced) section.\n \n1. Clone the repository.\n \n Executing this command will create your local repository with all the code to run UNet.\n \n ```bash\n git clone https://github.com/NVIDIA/DeepLearningExamples\n cd DeepLearningExamples/TensorFlow/Segmentation/UNet_Medical_TF\n \n2. Build the UNet TensorFlow NGC container.\n \n This command will use the `Dockerfile` to create a Docker image named `unet_tf`, downloading all the required components automatically.\n \n ```\n docker build -t unet_tf .\n ```\n \n The NGC container contains all the components optimized for usage on NVIDIA hardware.\n \n3. Start an interactive session in the NGC container to run preprocessing/training/inference.\n \n The following command will launch the container and mount the `./data` directory as a volume to the `/data` directory inside the container, and `./results` directory to the `/results` directory in the container.\n \n ```bash\n mkdir data\n mkdir results\n docker run --runtime=nvidia -it --shm-size=1g --ulimit memlock=-1 --ulimit stack=67108864 --rm --ipc=host -v ${PWD}/data:/data -v ${PWD}/results:/results unet_tf:latest /bin/bash\n ```\n \n Any datasets and experiment results (logs, checkpoints, etc.) saved to `/data` or `/results` will be accessible\n in the `./data` or `./results` directory on the host, respectively.\n \n4. Download and preprocess the data.\n \n The UNet script `main.py` operates on data from the [ISBI Challenge](http://brainiac2.mit.edu/isbi_challenge/home), the dataset originally employed in the [UNet paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/1505.04597). The data is available to download upon registration on the website.\n \n Training and test data are composed of 3 multi-page `TIF` files, each containing 30 2D-images (around 30 Mb total). Once downloaded, the data can be used to run the training and benchmark scripts described below, by pointing `main.py` to its location using the `--data_dir` flag.\n \n **Note:** Masks are only provided for training data.\n \n5. Start training.\n \n After the Docker container is launched, the training with the [default hyperparameters](#default-parameters) (for example 1/8 GPUs FP32/TF-AMP) can be started with:\n \n ```bash\n bash examples/unet{_TF-AMP}_{1,8}GPU.sh \n ```\n \n For example, to run with full precision (FP32) on 1 GPU from the project's folder, simply use:\n \n ```bash\n bash examples/unet_1GPU.sh /data /results\n ```\n \n This script will launch a training on a single fold and store the model's checkpoint in directory. \n \n The script can be run directly by modifying flags if necessary, especially the number of GPUs, which is defined after the `-np` flag. Since the test volume does not have labels, 20% of the training data is used for validation in 5-fold cross-validation manner. The number of fold can be changed using `--crossvalidation_idx` with an integer in range 0-4. For example, to run with 4 GPUs using fold 1 use:\n \n ```bash\n horovodrun -np 4 python main.py --data_dir /data --model_dir /results --batch_size 1 --exec_mode train --crossvalidation_idx 1 --xla --amp\n ```\n \n Training will result in a checkpoint file being written to `./results` on the host machine.\n \n6. Start validation/evaluation.\n \n The trained model can be evaluated by passing the `--exec_mode evaluate` flag. Since evaluation is carried out on a validation dataset, the `--crossvalidation_idx` parameter should be filled. For example:\n \n ```bash\n python main.py --data_dir /data --model_dir /results --batch_size 1 --exec_mode evaluate --crossvalidation_idx 0 --xla --amp\n ```\n \n Evaluation can also be triggered jointly after training by passing the `--exec_mode train_and_evaluate` flag.\n \n7. Start inference/predictions.\n To run inference on a checkpointed model, run:\n ```bash\n bash examples/unet_INFER{_TF-AMP}.sh \n ```\n For example:\n ```bash\n bash examples/unet_INFER_FP32.sh /data /results\n ```\n \n Now that you have your model trained and evaluated, you can choose to compare your training results with our [Training accuracy results](#training-accuracy-results). You can also choose to benchmark the performance of your training [Training performance benchmark](#training-performance-benchmark), or [Inference performance benchmark](#inference-performance-benchmark). Following the steps in these sections will ensure that you achieve the same accuracy and performance results as stated in the [Results](#results) section.","hasQuickStartGuide","advanced","The following sections provide greater details of the dataset, running training and inference, and the training results.\n \n### Scripts and sample code\n \nIn the root directory, the most important files are:\n* `main.py`: Serves as the entry point to the application.\n* `Dockerfile`: Container with the basic set of dependencies to run UNet.\n* `requirements.txt`: Set of extra requirements for running UNet.\n \nThe `utils/` folder encapsulates the necessary tools to train and perform inference using UNet. Its main components are:\n* `cmd_util.py`: Implements the command-line arguments parsing.\n* `data_loader.py`: Implements the data loading and augmentation.\n* `model_fn.py`: Implements the logic for training and inference.\n* `hooks/training_hook.py`: Collects different metrics during training.\n* `hooks/profiling_hook.py`: Collects different metrics to be used for benchmarking and testing.\n* `parse_results.py`: Implements the intermediate results parsing.\n* `setup.py`: Implements helper setup functions.\n \nThe `model/` folder contains information about the building blocks of UNet and the way they are assembled. Its contents are:\n* `layers.py`: Defines the different blocks that are used to assemble UNet\n* `unet.py`: Defines the model architecture using the blocks from the `layers.py` script\n \nOther folders included in the root directory are:\n* `examples/`: Provides examples for training and benchmarking UNet\n* `images/`: Contains a model diagram\n \n### Parameters\n \nThe complete list of the available parameters for the main.py script contains:\n* `--exec_mode`: Select the execution mode to run the model (default: `train`). Modes available:\n * `train` - trains model from scratch.\n * `evaluate` - loads checkpoint (if available) and performs evaluation on validation subset (requires `--crossvalidation_idx` other than `None`).\n * `train_and_evaluate` - trains model from scratch and performs validation at the end (requires `--crossvalidation_idx` other than `None`).\n * `predict` - loads checkpoint (if available) and runs inference on the test set. Stores the results in `--model_dir` directory.\n * `train_and_predict` - trains model from scratch and performs inference.\n* `--model_dir`: Set the output directory for information related to the model (default: `/results`).\n* `--log_dir`: Set the output directory for logs (default: None).\n* `--data_dir`: Set the input directory containing the dataset (default: `None`).\n* `--batch_size`: Size of each minibatch per GPU (default: `1`).\n* `--crossvalidation_idx`: Selected fold for cross-validation (default: `None`).\n* `--max_steps`: Maximum number of steps (batches) for training (default: `1000`).\n* `--seed`: Set random seed for reproducibility (default: `0`).\n* `--weight_decay`: Weight decay coefficient (default: `0.0005`).\n* `--log_every`: Log performance every n steps (default: `100`).\n* `--learning_rate`: Model's learning rate (default: `0.0001`).\n* `--augment`: Enable data augmentation (default: `False`).\n* `--benchmark`: Enable performance benchmarking (default: `False`). If the flag is set, the script runs in a benchmark mode - each iteration is timed and the performance result (in images per second) is printed at the end. Works for both `train` and `predict` execution modes.\n* `--warmup_steps`: Used during benchmarking - the number of steps to skip (default: `200`). First iterations are usually much slower since the graph is being constructed. Skipping the initial iterations is required for a fair performance assessment.\n* `--xla`: Enable accelerated linear algebra optimization (default: `False`).\n* `--amp`: Enable automatic mixed precision (default: `False`).\n \n### Command line options\n \nTo see the full list of available options and their descriptions, use the `-h` or `--help` command-line option, for example:\n```bash\npython main.py --help\n```\n \nThe following example output is printed when running the model:\n```python main.py --help\nusage: main.py [-h]\n [--exec_mode {train,train_and_predict,predict,evaluate,train_and_evaluate}]\n [--model_dir MODEL_DIR] --data_dir DATA_DIR [--log_dir LOG_DIR]\n [--batch_size BATCH_SIZE] [--learning_rate LEARNING_RATE]\n [--crossvalidation_idx CROSSVALIDATION_IDX]\n [--max_steps MAX_STEPS] [--weight_decay WEIGHT_DECAY]\n [--log_every LOG_EVERY] [--warmup_steps WARMUP_STEPS]\n [--seed SEED] [--augment] [--benchmark]\n [--amp] [--xla]\n \nUNet-medical\n \noptional arguments:\n -h, --help show this help message and exit\n --exec_mode {train,train_and_predict,predict,evaluate,train_and_evaluate}\n Execution mode of running the model\n --model_dir MODEL_DIR\n Output directory for information related to the model\n --data_dir DATA_DIR Input directory containing the dataset for training\n the model\n --log_dir LOG_DIR Output directory for training logs\n --batch_size BATCH_SIZE\n Size of each minibatch per GPU\n --learning_rate LEARNING_RATE\n Learning rate coefficient for AdamOptimizer\n --crossvalidation_idx CROSSVALIDATION_IDX\n Chosen fold for cross-validation. Use None to disable\n cross-validation\n --max_steps MAX_STEPS\n Maximum number of steps (batches) used for training\n --weight_decay WEIGHT_DECAY\n Weight decay coefficient\n --log_every LOG_EVERY\n Log performance every n steps\n --warmup_steps WARMUP_STEPS\n Number of warmup steps\n --seed SEED Random seed\n --augment Perform data augmentation during training\n --benchmark Collect performance metrics during training\n --amp Train using TF-AMP\n --xla Train using XLA\n```","hasAdvanced","performance","The performance measurements in this document were conducted at the time of publication and may not reflect the performance achieved from NVIDIA's latest software release. For the most up-to-date performance measurements, go to [NVIDIA Data Center Deep Learning Product Performance](https://developer.nvidia.com/deep-learning-performance-training-inference).\n \n### Benchmarking\n \nThe following section shows how to run benchmarks measuring the model performance in training and inference modes.\n \n#### Training performance benchmark\n \nTo benchmark training, run one of the `TRAIN_BENCHMARK` scripts in `./examples/`:\n```bash\nbash examples/unet_TRAIN_BENCHMARK{_TF-AMP}_{1, 8}GPU.sh \n```\nFor example, to benchmark training using mixed-precision on 8 GPUs use:\n```bash\nbash examples/unet_TRAIN_BENCHMARK_TF-AMP_8GPU.sh \n```\n \nEach of these scripts will by default run 200 warm-up iterations and benchmark the performance during training in the next 800 iterations.\n \nTo have more control, you can run the script by directly providing all relevant run parameters. For example:\n```bash\nhorovodrun -np python main.py --exec_mode train --benchmark --augment --data_dir --model_dir --batch_size --warmup_steps --max_steps \n```\n \nAt the end of the script, a line reporting the best train throughput will be printed.\n \n#### Inference performance benchmark\n \nTo benchmark inference, run one of the scripts in `./examples/`:\n```bash\nbash examples/unet_INFER_BENCHMARK{_TF-AMP}.sh \n```\n \nFor example, to benchmark inference using mixed-precision:\n```bash\nbash examples/unet_INFER_BENCHMARK_TF-AMP.sh \n```\n \nEach of these scripts will by default run 200 warm-up iterations and benchmark the performance during inference in the next 400 iterations.\n \nTo have more control, you can run the script by directly providing all relevant run parameters. For example:\n```bash\npython main.py --exec_mode predict --benchmark --data_dir --model_dir --batch_size --warmup_steps --max_steps \n```\n \nAt the end of the script, a line reporting the best inference throughput will be printed.\n \n### Results\n \nThe following sections provide details on how we achieved our performance and accuracy in training and inference.\n \n#### Training accuracy results\n\n##### Training accuracy: NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 40GB)\n \nThe following table lists the average DICE score across 5-fold cross-validation. Our results were obtained by running the `examples/unet_TRAIN{_TF-AMP}_{1, 8}GPU.sh` training script in the `tensorflow:20.06-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 40GB) GPUs.\n \n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Accuracy - TF32 | Accuracy - mixed precision | Time to train - TF32 [min] | Time to train - mixed precision [min] | Time to train speedup (TF32 to mixed precision) |\n|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|\n| 1 | 8 | 0.8908 | 0.8910 | 22 | 10 | 2.2 |\n| 8 | 8 | 0.8938 | 0.8942 | 2.6 | 2.5 | 1.04 |\n\n##### Training accuracy: NVIDIA DGX-1 (8x V100 16GB)\n \nThe following table lists the average DICE score across 5-fold cross-validation. Our results were obtained by running the `examples/unet_TRAIN_{FP32, TF-AMP}_{1, 8}GPU.sh` training script in the `tensorflow:20.06-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with (8x V100 16GB) GPUs.\n \n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Accuracy - FP32 | Accuracy - mixed precision | Time to train - FP32 [min] | Time to train - mixed precision [min] | Time to train speedup (FP32 to mixed precision) |\n|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|\n| 1 | 8 | 0.8910 | 0.8903 | 48 | 19 | 2.53 |\n| 8 | 8 | 0.8942 | 0.8940 | 7 | 7.5 | 0.93 |\n \nTo reproduce this result, start the Docker container interactively and run one of the TRAIN scripts:\n```bash\nbash examples/unet_TRAIN{_TF-AMP}_{1, 8}GPU.sh \n```\n for example\n```bash\nbash examples/unet_TRAIN_TF-AMP_8GPU.sh /data /results 8\n```\n\nThis command will launch a script which will run 5-fold cross-validation training for 40,000 iterations and print the validation DICE score and cross-entropy loss. The time reported is for one fold, which means that the training for 5 folds will take 5 times longer. The default batch size is 8, however if you have less than 16 Gb memory card and you encounter GPU memory issue you should decrease the batch size. The logs of the runs can be found in `/results` directory once the script is finished.\n \n**Learning curves**\n\nThe following image show the training loss as a function of iteration for training using DGX A100 (TF32 and TF-AMP) and DGX-1 V100 (FP32 and TF-AMP).\n![LearningCurves](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/NVIDIA/DeepLearningExamples/master/TensorFlow/Segmentation/UNet_Medical//images/U-NetMed_TF1_conv.png)\n\n\n#### Training performance results\n\n##### Training performance: NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 40GB)\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `examples/unet_TRAIN_BENCHMARK{_TF-AMP}_{1, 8}GPU.sh` training script in the `examples/unet_TRAIN_BENCHMARK_{TF-AMP, FP32}_{1, 8}GPU.sh` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 40GB) GPUs. Performance numbers (images per second) were averaged over 1000 iterations, excluding the first 200 warm-up steps.\n\n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Throughput - TF32 [img/s] | Throughput - mixed precision [img/s] | Throughput speedup (TF32 - mixed precision) | Weak scaling - TF32 | Weak scaling - mixed precision |\n|:----:|:----------------:|:-------------------------:|:------------------------------------:|:-------------------------------------------:|:-------------------:|:------------------------------:|\n| 1 | 1 | 29.81 | 64.22 | 2.15 | - | - |\n| 1 | 8 | 40.50 | 120.08 | 2.58 | - | - |\n| 8 | 1 | 169.62 | 293.31 | 1.73 | 5.69 | 4.57 |\n| 8 | 8 | 304.64 | 738.64 | 2.42 | 6.55 | 6.15 |\n\n##### Training performance: NVIDIA DGX-1 (8x V100 16GB)\n \nOur results were obtained by running the `examples/unet_TRAIN_BENCHMARK{_TF-AMP}_{1, 8}GPU.sh` training script in the `tensorflow:20.06-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with (8x V100 16GB) GPUs. Performance numbers (in images per second) were averaged over 1000 iterations, excluding the first 200 warm-up steps.\n\n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Throughput - FP32 [img/s] | Throughput - mixed precision [img/s] | Throughput speedup (FP32 - mixed precision) | Weak scaling - FP32 | Weak scaling - mixed precision |\n|:----:|:----------------:|:-------------------------:|:------------------------------------:|:-------------------------------------------:|:-------------------:|:------------------------------:|\n| 1 | 1 | 15.70 | 39.62 | 2.52 | - | - |\n| 1 | 8 | 18.85 | 60.28 | 3.20 | - | - |\n| 8 | 1 | 102.52 | 212.51 | 2.07 | 6.53 | 5.36 |\n| 8 | 8 | 141.75 | 403.88 | 2.85 | 7.52 | 6.70 |\n\nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Training performance benchmark](#training-performance-benchmark) section.\n \nThroughput is reported in images per second. Latency is reported in milliseconds per image.\n \n#### Inference performance results\n\n##### Inference performance: NVIDIA DGX A100 (1x A100 40GB)\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `examples/unet_INFER_BENCHMARK{_TF-AMP}.sh` inferencing benchmarking script in the `tensorflow:20.06-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 (1x A100 40GB) GPU.\n\nFP16\n\n| Batch size | Resolution | Throughput Avg [img/s] | Latency Avg [ms] | Latency 90% [ms] | Latency 95% [ms] | Latency 99% [ms] |\n|:----------:|:----------:|:----------------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|\n| 1 | 572x572x1 | 251.11 | 3.983 | 3.990 | 3.991 | 3.993 |\n| 2 | 572x572x1 | 179.70 | 11.130 | 11.138 | 11.139 | 11.142 |\n| 4 | 572x572x1 | 197.53 | 20.250 | 20.260 | 20.262 | 20.266 |\n| 8 | 572x572x1 | 382.48 | 24.050 | 29.356 | 30.372 | 32.359 |\n| 16 | 572x572x1 | 400.58 | 45.759 | 55.615 | 57.502 | 61.192 |\n\nTF32\n\n| Batch size | Resolution | Throughput Avg [img/s] | Latency Avg [ms] | Latency 90% [ms] | Latency 95% [ms] | Latency 99% [ms] |\n|:----------:|:----------:|:----------------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|\n| 1 | 572x572x1 | 88.80 | 11.261 | 11.264 | 11.264 | 11.265 |\n| 2 | 572x572x1 | 104.62 | 19.120 | 19.149 | 19.155 | 19.166 |\n| 4 | 572x572x1 | 117.02 | 34.184 | 34.217 | 34.223 | 34.235 |\n| 8 | 572x572x1 | 131.54 | 65.094 | 72.577 | 74.009 | 76.811 |\n| 16 | 572x572x1 | 137.41 | 121.552 | 130.795 | 132.565 | 136.027 |\n\nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Quick Start Guide](#quick-start-guide).\n\n##### Inference performance: NVIDIA DGX-1 (1x V100 16GB)\n \nOur results were obtained by running the `examples/unet_INFER_BENCHMARK{_TF-AMP}.sh` inferencing benchmarking script in the `tensorflow:20.06-tf1-py3` NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with (1x V100 16GB) GPU.\n \nFP16\n \n| Batch size | Resolution | Throughput Avg [img/s] | Latency Avg [ms] | Latency 90% [ms] | Latency 95% [ms] | Latency 99% [ms] |\n|:----------:|:----------:|:----------------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|\n| 1 | 572x572x1 | 127.11 | 7.868 | 7.875 | 7.876 | 7.879 |\n| 2 | 572x572x1 | 140.32 | 14.256 | 14.278 | 14.283 | 14.291 |\n| 4 | 572x572x1 | 148.28 | 26.978 | 27.005 | 27.010 | 27.020 |\n| 8 | 572x572x1 | 178.28 | 48.432 | 54.613 | 55.797 | 58.111 |\n| 16 | 572x572x1 | 181.94 | 94.812 | 106.743 | 109.028 | 113.496 |\n \nFP32\n \n| Batch size | Resolution | Throughput Avg [img/s] | Latency Avg [ms] | Latency 90% [ms] | Latency 95% [ms] | Latency 99% [ms] |\n|:----------:|:----------:|:----------------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|:----------------:|\n| 1 | 572x572x1 | 47.32 | 21.133 | 21.155 | 21.159 | 21.167 |\n| 2 | 572x572x1 | 51.43 | 38.888 | 38.921 | 38.927 | 38.940 |\n| 4 | 572x572x1 | 53.56 | 74.692 | 74.763 | 74.777 | 74.804 |\n| 8 | 572x572x1 | 54.41 | 152.733 | 163.148 | 165.142 | 169.042 |\n| 16 | 572x572x1 | 67.11 | 245.775 | 259.548 | 262.186 | 267.343 |\n \nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Inference performance benchmark](#inference-performance-benchmark) section.\n \nThroughput is reported in images per second. Latency is reported in milliseconds per batch.","hasPerformance","policies",[],{"_77":21,"_79":199,"_170":-5,"_176":31,"_178":31,"_194":198,"_181":87},{"_77":23,"_79":23,"_170":-5,"_176":31,"_178":31,"_194":198,"_181":87},[],"Latest (20.06.0)","nvidia/dle/unet_2d-medical_tf1","key","nvidia/dle/resources/unet_2d-medical_tf1","resourceType","resources","resourceId","unet_2d-medical_tf1","shortDescription","U-Net allows for seamless segmentation of 2D images, with high accuracy and performance.","This resource is using open-source code maintained in github (see the quick-start-guide section) and available for download from [NGC](https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com/orgs/nvidia/teams/dle/resources/unet2dmed-tf2)\n\n \nThe UNet model is a convolutional neural network for 2D image segmentation. This repository contains a UNet implementation as described in the original paper [UNet: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation](https://arxiv.org/abs/1505.04597), without any alteration.\n \nThis model is trained with mixed precision using Tensor Cores on Volta, Turing, and the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architectures. Therefore, researchers can get results 2.2x faster than training without Tensor Cores, while experiencing the benefits of mixed precision training. This model is tested against each NGC monthly container release to ensure consistent accuracy and performance over time.\n\n### Model architecture\n \nUNet was first introduced by Olaf Ronneberger, Philip Fischer, and Thomas Brox in the paper: [UNet: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation](https://arxiv.org/abs/1505.04597). UNet allows for seamless segmentation of 2D images, with high accuracy and performance, and can be adapted to solve many different segmentation problems.\n \nThe following figure shows the construction of the UNet model and its different components. UNet is composed of a contractive and an expanding path, that aims at building a bottleneck in its centermost part through a combination of convolution and pooling operations. After this bottleneck, the image is reconstructed through a combination of convolutions and upsampling. Skip connections are added with the goal of helping the backward flow of gradients in order to improve the training.\n \n![UNet](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/NVIDIA/DeepLearningExamples/master/TensorFlow/Segmentation/UNet_Medical//images/unet.png)\n\n\nFigure 1. UNet architecture\n \n### Default configuration\n \nUNet consists of a contractive (left-side) and expanding (right-side) path. It repeatedly applies unpadded convolutions followed by max pooling for downsampling. Every step in the expanding path consists of an upsampling of the feature maps and a concatenation with the correspondingly cropped feature map from the contractive path.\n \n### Feature support matrix\n \nThe following features are supported by this model.\n \n| **Feature** | **UNet Medical** |\n|---------------------------------|-----|\n| Automatic mixed precision (AMP) | Yes |\n| Horovod Multi-GPU (NCCL) | Yes |\n| Accelerated Linear Algebra (XLA)| Yes |\n \n#### Features\n \n**Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP)**\n \nThis implementation of UNet uses AMP to implement mixed precision training. It allows us to use FP16 training with FP32 master weights by modifying just a few lines of code.\n \n**Horovod**\n \nHorovod is a distributed training framework for TensorFlow, Keras, PyTorch, and MXNet. The goal of Horovod is to make distributed deep learning fast and easy to use. For more information about how to get started with Horovod, see the [Horovod: Official repository](https://github.com/horovod/horovod).\n \n**Multi-GPU training with Horovod**\n \nOur model uses Horovod to implement efficient multi-GPU training with NCCL. For details, see example sources in this repository or see the [TensorFlow tutorial](https://github.com/horovod/horovod/#usage).\n \n**XLA support (experimental)**\n \nXLA is a domain-specific compiler for linear algebra that can accelerate TensorFlow models with potentially no source code changes. The results are improvements in speed and memory usage: most internal benchmarks run ~1.1-1.5x faster after XLA is enabled.\n \n### Mixed precision training\n \nMixed precision is the combined use of different numerical precisions in a computational method. [Mixed precision](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) training offers significant computational speedup by performing operations in half-precision format while storing minimal information in single-precision to retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network. Since the introduction of [Tensor Cores](https://developer.nvidia.com/tensor-cores) in the Volta and Turing architecture, significant training speedups are experienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup on the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using [mixed precision training](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/performance/mixed-precision-training/index.html) previously required two steps:\n1. Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate. \n2. Adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.\n\nThis can now be achieved using Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP) for TensorFlow to enable the full [mixed precision methodology](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html#tensorflow) in your existing TensorFlow model code. AMP enables mixed precision training on Volta and Turing GPUs automatically. The TensorFlow framework code makes all necessary model changes internally.\n\nIn TF-AMP, the computational graph is optimized to use as few casts as necessary and maximize the use of FP16, and the loss scaling is automatically applied inside of supported optimizers. AMP can be configured to work with the existing tf.contrib loss scaling manager by disabling the AMP scaling with a single environment variable to perform only the automatic mixed-precision optimization. It accomplishes this by automatically rewriting all computation graphs with the necessary operations to enable mixed precision training and automatic loss scaling.\n\nFor information about:\n- How to train using mixed precision, see the [Mixed Precision Training](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) paper and [Training With Mixed Precision](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/performance/mixed-precision-training/index.html) documentation.\n- Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the [Mixed-Precision Training of Deep Neural Networks](https://devblogs.nvidia.com/mixed-precision-training-deep-neural-networks/) blog.\n- How to access and enable AMP for TensorFlow, see [Using TF-AMP](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/tensorflow-user-guide/index.html#tfamp) from the TensorFlow User Guide.\n\n#### Enabling mixed precision\n \nMixed precision is enabled in TensorFlow by using the Automatic Mixed Precision (TF-AMP) extension which casts variables to half-precision upon retrieval, while storing variables in single-precision format. Furthermore, to preserve small gradient magnitudes in backpropagation, a [loss scaling](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html#lossscaling) step must be included when applying gradients. In TensorFlow, loss scaling can be applied statically by using simple multiplication of loss by a constant value or automatically, by TF-AMP. Automatic mixed precision makes all the adjustments internally in TensorFlow, providing two benefits over manual operations. First, programmers need not modify network model code, reducing development and maintenance effort. Second, using AMP maintains forward and backward compatibility with all the APIs for defining and running TensorFlow models.\n\nTo enable mixed precision, you can simply add the values to the environmental variables inside your training script:\n- Enable TF-AMP graph rewrite:\n ```\n os.environ[\"TF_ENABLE_AUTO_MIXED_PRECISION_GRAPH_REWRITE\"] = \"1\"\n ```\n \n- Enable Automated Mixed Precision:\n ```\n os.environ['TF_ENABLE_AUTO_MIXED_PRECISION'] = '1'\n ```\n \n#### Enabling TF32\n\nTensorFloat-32 (TF32) is the new math mode in [NVIDIA A100](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/) GPUs for handling the matrix math also called tensor operations. TF32 running on Tensor Cores in A100 GPUs can provide up to 10x speedups compared to single-precision floating-point math (FP32) on Volta GPUs. \n\nTF32 Tensor Cores can speed up networks using FP32, typically with no loss of accuracy. It is more robust than FP16 for models which require high dynamic range for weights or activations.\n\nFor more information, refer to the [TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x](https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2020/05/14/tensorfloat-32-precision-format/) blog post.\n\nTF32 is supported in the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architecture and is enabled by default.","displayName","UNet Medical for TensorFlow1",["D",1667525216472],"publisher","NVIDIA Deep Learning Examples","latestVersion","versions","collectionCounts","imageUrl","/api/image/nvidia/dle/resources/unet_2d-medical_tf1","rawImageUrl","https://assets.nvidiagrid.net/ngc/logos/Deep-Learning-Examples.png","canGuestDownload","latestVersionSizeInBytes","licenseTerms","isMultinodeEnabled","isMultiArchitecture","bias","explainability","privacy","safetyAndSecurity","featureLabels",[],"displayLabels",[],"policyLabels",[],"systemLabels",[],"products",[],"hasNimMetadata",{"_108":1417,"_110":1418},"ngcApps",[1370],"csaApiBaseUrl","https://www.nvidia.com/ai-agents/csa-agent/dcsm","datadogRum",{"_1351":1352,"_1353":1354,"_1355":1356,"_1357":1358,"_1359":253,"_139":277,"_1360":1361,"_1362":56,"_1363":87,"_1364":87,"_1365":1366,"_1367":87,"_1368":1369},"amplitude",{"_1348":1349,"_949":-7,"_1350":31},"disableJs","environment","prod","featureFlagsBlob","JTdCJTIydGVzdEZsYWclMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMnNob3dTZWFyY2hMYWJlbFNldEZpbHRlcnMlMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMmNoaW5hTmltRGlzdHJpYnV0b3JzUmVkZXNpZ24lMjIlM0F0cnVlJTJDJTIyZW5hYmxlQ3NhV2lkZ2V0JTIyJTNBZmFsc2UlMkMlMjJlbmFibGVQcm9kdWN0R3JvdXBpbmdCeVN1YnNjcmlwdGlvbiUyMiUzQWZhbHNlJTJDJTIyY29udGFpbmVyU2Nhbm5pbmdSZWRlc2lnbk0xJTIyJTNBdHJ1ZSU3RA==","featureFlagsGuarded","isDevLikeEnv","isPlaywright","isMobileDevice","categorizedOrgs",{"_1342":1343,"_1344":1345,"_1346":1347},"currentOrgContext","currentContextRoles",[],"enterpriseOrgs",[],"locale","en","ngcApiOrigin","ngcHelmOrigin","origin","https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com","usesMocks","theme","year",2026,"1.7.3","defaultSearchSuggestions",{"_1224":357,"_1225":1226,"_1227":1228,"_1229":1230},"announcements",[],"consentState",{"_314":1214,"_1215":87,"_1216":31,"_1217":31,"_1218":1219},"consentConfig",{"_296":297,"_298":299,"_300":301,"_302":303,"_304":305,"_306":307,"_308":309,"_310":311,"_312":313,"_314":315},"showContactAdmin",1783956440045,[],[],[291,292,293,294,295],{"_45":60,"_47":71,"_49":103,"_51":-5,"_53":-5,"_55":56},{"_45":60,"_47":69,"_49":103,"_51":-5,"_53":-5,"_55":56},{"_45":60,"_47":61,"_49":103,"_51":-5,"_53":-5,"_55":56},{"_45":57,"_47":58,"_49":103,"_51":-5,"_53":-5,"_55":56},{"_45":46,"_47":48,"_49":50,"_51":52,"_53":59,"_55":56},"mainInfoText","We and our third-party partners (including social media, advertising, and analytics partners) use cookies and other tracking technologies to collect, store, monitor, and process certain information about you when you visit our website. 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The main business activity is: Doubleclick is Googles real time bidding advertising exchange","test_cookie","bing.com",[375],{"_79":376,"_362":373,"_363":31,"_168":377},"MUID","This domain is owned by Mircosoft - it is the site for the search engine Bing.","assets.adobedtm.com",[380],{"_79":381,"_362":378,"_363":31,"_168":382},"kndctr_F207D74D549850760A4C98C6_AdobeOrg_consent","If you know anything about this host and its uses please add your contributions here. ","tiktok.com",[385],{"_79":386,"_362":383,"_363":31,"_168":387},"_ttp","TikTok is a social media platform owned by ByteDance, known for short-form video sharing. The service is used to create and share videos, and it utilizes cookies for various purposes including advertising and analytics.","t.co",[390],{"_79":391,"_362":388,"_363":31,"_168":392},"muc_ads","This domain is owned by Twitter. 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These cookies enable us to provide enhanced website functionality and personalization as well as make the marketing messages we send to you more relevant to your interests. 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This function remembers how far the user has scrolled on the current session across the website's sub-pages.","dmn_chk_-xxxxxxxxxxxx","com","Posthog Analytics","_hly_vid","This cookie _hly_vid is used to record website and server performance with each visit to the site. The data is aggregated and analyzed; therefore, it remains anonymous upon use.","_cs_id","blogs.nvidia.com","_session_id","resources.nvidia.com","This cookie creates an interim session ID used as an in-session user ID.\n","s_cc","This cookie is associated with the Adobe Site Catalyst. It determines whether cookies are enabled in the web browser.","_hjSessionUser_xxxxxx","Hotjar cookie that is set when a user first lands on a page with the Hotjar script. It is used to persist the Hotjar User ID, unique to that site on the browser. 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The service also uses cookies for various purposes, including analytics, personalization, and advertising.","readme.io",[919],{"_79":894,"_362":917,"_363":31,"_168":920},"The __cf_bm cookie is a cookie necessary to support Cloudflare Bot Management, currently in private beta. 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As part of our bot management service, this cookie helps manage incoming traffic that matches criteria associated with bots.\nThis is a CloudFoundry cookie","OptanonConsent","nvid.nvidia.com","This cookie is set by the cookie compliance solution from OneTrust. It stores information about the categories of cookies the site uses and whether visitors have given or withdrawn consent for the use of each category. This enables site owners to prevent cookies in each category from being set in the users browser, when consent is not given. The cookie has a normal lifespan of one year, so that returning visitors to the site will have their preferences remembered. It contains no information that can identify the site visitor.","events.nvidia.com","This cookie is associated with the Amazon Web Services Elastic Load Balancing functionality for routing client request on the server.Used to attribute commission to affiliates when you arrive at the website from an affiliate referral link. It is set when you click on one of our links and used to let the advertiser and us know the website from which you came.","sessionid","This is a very generic cookie name that may have different purposes on different sites, but generally it will be some kind of anonymous session identifier.","_csrf","This cookie is used to prevent Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF) attacks, ensuring that each request made to the server is from the user's browser and is intentional.","enterprise-support.nvidia.com","Used to apply end-user cookie consent preferences set by our client-side utility.Custom- Short Duration. Unique ID of an Enquiry- used to validate access to case, and load exisiting data.\n","renderCtx","academicgrants.nvidia.com","Used to store site parameters in the session for reuse across requests by a single client for functionality and performance reasons.","ph_phc_yQgAEdJJkVpI24NdSRID2mor1x1leRpDoC9yZ9mfXal_posthog","The PostHog ph_phc_xxx cookie is a session cookie used for identifying and tracking visitors on websites, helping us understand user behavior and website performance.","This cookie is managed by AWS and is used for load balancing.Used to attribute commission to affiliates when you arrive at the website from an affiliate referral link. It is set when you click on one of our links and used to let the advertiser and us know the website from which you came.","This cookie is associated with Akamai and is used to differentiate between traffic from humans and bots.","OptanonAlertBoxClosed","docs.ngc.nvidia.com","This cookie is set by websites using certain versions of the cookie law compliance solution from OneTrust. It is set after visitors have seen a cookie information notice and in some cases only when they actively close the notice down. It enables the website not to show the message more than once to a user. The cookie has a normal lifespan of one year and contains no personal information.","nv_co","__uxq412__ses.88c1","investor.nvidia.com","learn.learn.nvidia.com","This cookie is associated with the Amazon Web Services Elastic Load Balancing functionality for routing client request on the server.","pctrk","Used to count page views by unauthenticated users against license usage.","bm_s","bpazaws52gukakzc__ctrl0_ctl36_uccaptcha","bm_sv","store.nvidia.com","The __cf_bm cookie is a cookie necessary to support Cloudflare Bot Management, currently in private beta. As part of our bot management service, this cookie helps manage incoming traffic that matches criteria associated with bots.\n","This cookie name is used by DataDog to determine if cookies are supported on the website.dd_cookie_test","AMP_TLDTEST_xxxxxxxx","SESSlsd","This cookie is likely to be a session identifier used to maintain user session state across page requests.","mboxEdgeCluster","This cookie name is associated with Adobe Target which is used to communicate the correct edge cluster to at.js so that Target profiles can stay in sync as users navigate across a site.","_biz_pendingA","_rdt_em","This cookie name is associated with Reddit which is used to manage session state and user interactions.","megaNavCollapsed","_abck","The _abck cookie is associated with Akamai's Bot Manager, which is used to prevent fraud and abuse by safeguarding online interactions and detecting irregularities that could suggest malicious activity, such as bot-driven attacks or hacking attempts.","AMP_TEST","This cookie name AMP_TEST is used for internal analytics by the website operator, necessary for the functionality of the website's chat-box function, and to check whether the cookie storage is working properly.","idccsrf","This cookie name is associated with Salesforce which is used to track CrossSiteRequestForgery validation for certain single sign-on (SSO) flows.","_biz_flagsA","This cookie is used to remember users' settings as well as for authentication and analytics.","ApplicationGatewayAffinity","partners.nvidia.com","This cookie is used to maintain a user session by the server in a load balanced environment, to ensure the user has a consistent experience.","AMP_TEST_xxxxxxxx","bm_lso","This cookie name is associated with Akamai which is used to load the site as quickly as possible and to recognize bots.","SSESS###########","This cookie is likely to be a session cookie used to maintain an anonymized user session by the server in a secure environment, often seen in sites built with the Drupal content management system.","nvdeveloper.nvidia.com","__uxq412__id.88c1","QueueITAccepted-SDFrts345E-V3_{eventId}","TEST_AMCV_COOKIE_WRITE","This cookie is used to test whether cookies are enabled in the browser. It is a temporary cookie used to determine if the browser accepts cookies.","session","This cookie is typically used to maintain an anonymized user session by the server.","XSRF-TOKEN","This cookie is written to help with site security in preventing Cross-Site Request Forgery attacks.This cookie helps with site security in preventing Cross-Site Request Forgery attacks.","AWS ELB application load balancer","This cookie is associated with Akamai. It is used to analyse traffic to determine if it is automated traffic generated by bots or a human user.","bpazaws52gukakzc__ctrl0_ctl78_list_ctl09_systemcaptcha","PHPSESSID","PHP session cookie associated with embedded content from this domain.\n","base.manager.learn.nvidia.com","login_session","bm_ss","This cookie is used to help protect websites from automated bot traffic.","AWS ELB application load balancerUsed to attribute commission to affiliates when you arrive at the website from an affiliate referral link. 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