This resource is using open-source code maintained in github (see the quick-start-guide section) and available for download from NGC

The Transformer is a Neural Machine Translation (NMT) model which uses attention mechanism to boost training speed and overall accuracy. The Transformer model was introduced in Attention Is All You Need and improved in Scaling Neural Machine Translation.\nThis implementation is based on the optimized implementation in Facebook's Fairseq NLP toolkit, built on top of PyTorch.

This model is trained with mixed precision using Tensor Cores on NVIDIA Volta, Turing and Ampere GPU architectures. Therefore, researchers can get results 6.5x faster than training without Tensor Cores, while experiencing the benefits of mixed precision training. This model is tested against each NGC monthly container release to ensure consistent accuracy and performance over time.

Model architecture

The Transformer model uses standard NMT encoder-decoder architecture. This model unlike other NMT models, uses no recurrent connections and operates on fixed size context window.\nThe encoder stack is made up of N identical layers. Each layer is composed of the following sublayers:\n1. Self-attention layer\n2. Feedforward network (which is 2 fully-connected layers)\nLike the encoder stack, the decoder stack is made up of N identical layers. Each layer is composed of the sublayers:\n1. Self-attention layer\n2. Multi-headed attention layer combining encoder outputs with results from\nthe previous self-attention layer.\n3. Feedforward network (2 fully-connected layers)

The encoder uses self-attention to compute a representation of the input sequence. The decoder generates the output sequence one token at a time, taking the encoder output and previous decoder-outputted tokens as inputs.\nThe model also applies embeddings on the input and output tokens, and adds a constant positional encoding. The positional encoding adds information about the position of each token.

\n \n
\n Figure 1. The architecture of a Transformer model.\n

The complete description of the Transformer architecture can be found in Attention Is All You Need paper.

Default configuration

The Transformer uses Byte Pair Encoding tokenization scheme using Moses decoder. This is a lossy compression method (we drop information about white spaces). Tokenization is applied over whole WMT14 en-de dataset including test set. Default vocabulary size is 33708, excluding all special tokens. Encoder and decoder are using shared embeddings.\nWe use 6 blocks in each encoder and decoder stacks. Self attention layer computes it's outputs according to the following formula $Attention(Q,K,V) = softmax(\\frac{QK^T}{\\sqrt{d_k}})V$. At each attention step, the model computes 16 different attention representations (which we will call attention heads) and concatenates them.\nWe trained the Transformer model using the Adam optimizer with betas (0.9, 0.997), epsilon 1e-9 and learning rate 6e-4. We used the inverse square root training schedule preceded with linear warmup of 4000 steps.\nThe implementation allows to perform training in mixed precision. We use dynamic loss scaling and custom mixed precision optimizer. Distributed multi-GPU and multi-Node is implemented with torch.distirbuted module with NCCL backend.\nFor inference, we use beam search with default beam size of 5. Model performance is evaluated with BLEU4 metrics. For clarity, we report internal (legacy) BLEU implementation as well as external SacreBleu score.

Feature support matrix

The following features are supported by this model.

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

tr:nth-child(odd)]:bg-surface-sunken\">

Feature	Yes column
Multi-GPU training with Distributed Communication Package	Yes
Nvidia APEX	Yes
AMP	Yes
TorchScript	Yes

Features

\n
Multi-GPU training with Distributed Communication Package: Our model uses torch.distributed package to implement efficient multi-GPU training with NCCL.\nTo enable multi-GPU training with torch.distributed, you have to initialize your model identically in every process spawned by torch.distributed.launch. Distributed strategy is implemented with APEX's DistributedDataParallel.\nFor details, see example sources in this repo or see the pytorch tutorial
\n
\n
Nvidia APEX: The purpose of the APEX is to provide easy and intuitive framework for distributed training and mixed precision training. For details, see official APEX repository.
\n
\n
AMP: This implementation uses Apex's AMP to perform mixed precision training.
\n
\n
TorchScript: Transformer can be converted to TorchScript format offering ease of deployment on platforms without Python dependencies. For more information see official TorchScript documentation.
\n

Mixed precision training

Mixed precision is the combined use of different numerical precisions in a computational method. Mixed precision training offers significant computational speedup by performing operations in half-precision format, while storing minimal information in single-precision to retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network. Since the introduction of Tensor Cores in the Volta and Turing architecture, significant training speedups are experienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup on the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using mixed precision training requires two steps:

Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate.
Adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.

The ability to train deep learning networks with lower precision was introduced in the Pascal architecture and first supported in CUDA 8 in the NVIDIA Deep Learning SDK.

For information about:

How to train using mixed precision, see the Mixed Precision Training paper and Training With Mixed Precision documentation.
Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the Mixed-Precision Training of Deep Neural Networks blog.
APEX tools for mixed precision training, see the NVIDIA Apex: Tools for Easy Mixed-Precision Training in PyTorch.

Enabling mixed precision

Mixed precision is enabled using the --amp option in the train.py script. The default is optimization level O2 but can be overriden with --amp-level $LVL option (for details see amp documentation). Forward and backward pass are computed with FP16 precision with exclusion of a loss function which is computed in FP32 precision. Default optimization level keeps a copy of a model in higher precision in order to perform accurate weight update. After the update FP32 weights are again copied to FP16 model. We use dynamic loss scaling with initial scale of 2^7 increasing it by a factor of 2 every 2000 successful iterations. Overflow is being checked after reducing gradients from all of the workers. If we encounter infs or nans the whole batch is dropped.

Enabling TF32

TensorFloat-32 (TF32) is the new math mode in NVIDIA A100 GPUs for handling the matrix math also called tensor operations. TF32 running on Tensor Cores in A100 GPUs can provide up to 10x speedups compared to single-precision floating-point math (FP32) on Volta GPUs.

TF32 Tensor Cores can speed up networks using FP32, typically with no loss of accuracy. It is more robust than FP16 for models which require high dynamic range for weights or activations.

For more information, refer to the TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x blog post.

TF32 is supported in the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architecture and is enabled by default.

Glossary

Attention layer - Layer that computes which elements of input sequence or it's hidden representation contribute the most to the currently considered output element.
\nBeam search - A heuristic search algorithm which at each step of predictions keeps N most possible outputs as a base to perform further prediction.
\nBPE - Binary Pair Encoding, compression algorithm that find most common pair of symbols in a data and replaces them with new symbol absent in the data.
\nEOS - End of a sentence.
\nSelf attention layer - Attention layer that computes hidden representation of input using the same tensor as query, key and value.
\nToken - A string that is representable within the model. We also refer to the token's position in the dictionary as a token. There are special non-string tokens: alphabet tokens (all characters in a dataset), EOS token, PAD token.
\nTokenizer - Object that converts raw strings to sequences of tokens.
\nVocabulary embedding - Layer that projects one-hot token representations to a high dimensional space which preserves some information about correlations between tokens.

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Better handling of OOMs.\n\nInitial commit, forked from [fairseq](https://github.com/pytorch/fairseq/commit/ac5fddfc691267285a84c81d39475411da5ed1c6)","hasReleaseNotes","setup","The following section lists the requirements in order to start training the Transformer model.\n\n### Requirements\n\nThis repository contains Dockerfile which extends the PyTorch NGC container and encapsulates some dependencies. Aside from these dependencies, ensure you have the following components:\n\n- [NVIDIA Docker](https://github.com/NVIDIA/nvidia-docker)\n- [PyTorch 22.06-py3+ NGC container](https://ngc.nvidia.com/registry/nvidia-pytorch)\n- GPU-based architecture:\n\t- [NVIDIA Volta](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/volta-gpu-architecture/)\n\t- [NVIDIA Turing](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/turing/)\n\t- [NVIDIA Ampere architecture](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/nvidia-ampere-gpu-architecture/)\n\nFor more information about how to get started with NGC containers, see the following sections from the NVIDIA GPU Cloud Documentation and the Deep Learning Documentation:\n- [Getting Started Using NVIDIA GPU Cloud](https://docs.nvidia.com/ngc/ngc-getting-started-guide/index.html)\n- [Accessing And Pulling From The NGC Container Registry](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/user-guide/index.html#accessing_registry)\n- Running [PyTorch NGC container](https://ngc.nvidia.com/catalog/containers/nvidia:pytorch)\n \nFor those unable to use the PyTorch NGC container, to set up the required environment or create your own container, see the versioned [NVIDIA Container Support Matrix](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/frameworks/support-matrix/index.html).","hasSetup","quickStartGuide","To train your model using mixed or TF32 precision with Tensor Cores or using FP32, perform the following steps using the default parameters of the Transformer model on the [WMT14 English-German](http://statmt.org/wmt14/translation-task.html#Download) dataset. For the specifics concerning training and inference, see the [Advanced](#advanced) section.\n\n1. Clone the repository \n```\ngit clone https://github.com/NVIDIA/DeepLearningExamples.git \ncd DeepLearningExamples/PyTorch/Translation/Transformer\n```\n\n2. Build and launch the Transformer PyTorch NGC container\n```bash\ndocker build . -t your.repository:transformer\nnvidia-docker run -it --rm --ipc=host your.repository:transformer bash\n```\nIf you already have preprocessed data, use:\n```bash\nnvidia-docker run -it --rm --ipc=host -v :/data/wmt14_en_de_joined_dict your.repository:transformer bash\n```\nIf you already have data downloaded, but it has not yet been preprocessed, use:\n```bash\nnvidia-docker run -it --rm --ipc=host -v :/workspace/translation/examples/translation/orig your.repository:transformer bash\n```\n3. Download and preprocess dataset: Download and preprocess the WMT14 English-German dataset.\n\n```bash \nscripts/run_preprocessing.sh\n```\nAfter running this command, data will be downloaded to `/workspace/translation/examples/translation/orig` directory and this data will be processed and put into `/data/wmt14_en_de_joined_dict` directory.\n\n4. Start training\n```bash\npython -m torch.distributed.run --nproc_per_node 8 /workspace/translation/train.py /data/wmt14_en_de_joined_dict \\\n --arch transformer_wmt_en_de_big_t2t \\\n --share-all-embeddings \\\n --optimizer adam \\\n --adam-betas '(0.9, 0.997)' \\\n --adam-eps \"1e-9\" \\\n --clip-norm 0.0 \\\n --lr-scheduler inverse_sqrt \\\n --warmup-init-lr 0.0 \\\n --warmup-updates 4000 \\\n --lr 0.0006 \\\n --min-lr 0.0 \\\n --dropout 0.1 \\\n --weight-decay 0.0 \\\n --criterion label_smoothed_cross_entropy \\\n --label-smoothing 0.1 \\\n --max-tokens 5120 \\\n --seed 1 \\\n --fuse-layer-norm \\\n --amp \\\n --amp-level O2 \\\n --save-dir /workspace/checkpoints\n```\n\nThe script saves checkpoints every epoch to the directory specified in the `--save-dir` option. In addition, the best performing checkpoint (in terms of loss) and the latest checkpoints are saved separately.\n**WARNING**: If you don't have access to sufficient disk space, use the `--save-interval $N` option. The checkpoints are ~3.4GB large. For example, it takes the Transformer model 30 epochs for the validation loss to plateau. The default option is to save last checkpoint, the best checkpoint and a checkpoint for every epoch, which means (30+1+1)*3.4GB = 108.8GB of a disk space used. Specifying `--save-interval 10` reduces this to (30/10+1+1)*3.4GB = 17GB. \n\n5. Start interactive inference\n```bash\npython inference.py \\ \n --buffer-size 5000 \\\n --path /path/to/your/checkpoint.pt \\\n --max-tokens 10240 \\\n --fuse-dropout-add \\\n --remove-bpe \\\n --bpe-codes /path/to/bpe_code_file \\\n --fp16\n```\nwhere, \n* `--path` option is the location of the checkpoint file. \n* `--bpe-codes` option is the location of the `code` file. If the default training command mentioned above is used, this file can be found in the preprocessed data ( i.e., `/data/wmt14_en_de_joined_dict` ) directory.","hasQuickStartGuide","advanced","The following sections provide greater details of the dataset, running training and inference, and the training results.\n\n### Scripts and sample code\n\nThe `preprocess.py` script performs binarization of the dataset obtained and tokenized by the `examples/translation/prepare-wmt14en2de.sh` script. The `train.py` script contains training loop as well as statistics gathering code. Steps performed in single training step can be found in `fairseq/ddp_trainer.py`. Model definition is placed in the file `fairseq/models/transformer.py`. Model specific modules including multiheaded attention and sinusoidal positional embedding are inside the `fairseq/modules/` directory. Finally, the data wrappers are placed inside the `fairseq/data/` directory.\n\n### Parameters\n\nIn this section we give a user friendly description of the most common options used in the `train.py` script.\n### Command-line options\n`--arch` - select the specific configuration for the model. You can select between various predefined hyper parameters values like number of encoder/decoder blocks, dropout value or size of hidden state representation.
\n`--share-all-embeddings` - use the same set of weights for encoder and decoder words embedding.
\n`--optimizer` - choose optimization algorithm.
\n`--clip-norm` - set a value that gradients will be clipped to.
\n`--lr-scheduler` - choose learning rate change strategy.
\n`--warmup-init-lr` - start linear warmup with a learning rate at this value.
\n`--warmup-updates` - set number of optimization steps after which linear warmup will end.
\n`--lr` - set learning rate.
\n`--min-lr` - prevent learning rate to fall below this value using arbitrary learning rate schedule.
\n`--dropout` - set dropout value.
\n`--weight-decay` - set weight decay value.
\n`--criterion` - select loss function.
\n`--label-smoothing` - distribute value of one-hot labels between all entries of a dictionary. Value set by this option will be a value subtracted from one-hot label.
\n`--max-tokens` - set batch size in terms of tokens.
\n`--max-sentences` - set batch size in terms of sentences. Note that then the actual batchsize will vary a lot more than when using `--max-tokens` option.
\n`--seed` - set random seed for NumPy and PyTorch RNGs.
\n`--max-epochs` - set the maximum number of epochs.
\n`--online-eval` - perform inference on test set and then compute BLEU score after every epoch.
\n`--target-bleu` - works like `--online-eval` and sets a BLEU score threshold which after being attained will cause training to stop.
\n`--amp` - use mixed precision.
\n`--save-dir` - set directory for saving checkpoints.
\n`--distributed-init-method` - method for initializing torch.distributed package. You can either provide addresses with the `tcp` method or use the envionment variables initialization with `env` method
\n`--update-freq` - use gradient accumulation. Set number of training steps across which gradient will be accumulated.
\n\nTo see the full list of available options and their descriptions, use the `-h` or `--help` command line option, for example:\n```\npython train.py --help\n```\n\nThe following (partial) output is printed when running the sample:\n```\nusage: train.py [-h] [--no-progress-bar] [--log-interval N]\n [--log-format {json,none,simple,tqdm}] [--seed N] [--fp16]\n [--task TASK] [--skip-invalid-size-inputs-valid-test] [--max-tokens N]\n [--max-sentences N] [--sentencepiece] [--train-subset SPLIT]\n [--valid-subset SPLIT] [--max-sentences-valid N]\n [--gen-subset SPLIT] [--num-shards N] [--shard-id ID]\n [--distributed-world-size N]\n [--distributed-rank DISTRIBUTED_RANK]\n [--local_rank LOCAL_RANK]\n [--distributed-backend DISTRIBUTED_BACKEND]\n [--distributed-init-method DISTRIBUTED_INIT_METHOD]\n [--distributed-port DISTRIBUTED_PORT] [--device-id DEVICE_ID]\n --arch ARCH [--criterion CRIT] [--max-epoch N]\n [--max-update N] [--target-bleu TARGET] [--clip-norm NORM]\n [--sentence-avg] [--update-freq N] [--optimizer OPT]\n [--lr LR_1,LR_2,...,LR_N] [--momentum M] [--weight-decay WD]\n [--lr-scheduler LR_SCHEDULER] [--lr-shrink LS] [--min-lr LR]\n [--min-loss-scale D] [--enable-parallel-backward-allred-opt]\n [--parallel-backward-allred-opt-threshold N]\n [--enable-parallel-backward-allred-opt-correctness-check]\n [--save-dir DIR] [--restore-file RESTORE_FILE]\n [--save-interval N] [--save-interval-updates N]\n [--keep-interval-updates N] [--no-save]\n [--no-epoch-checkpoints] [--validate-interval N] [--path FILE]\n [--remove-bpe [REMOVE_BPE]] [--cpu] [--quiet] [--beam N]\n [--nbest N] [--max-len-a N] [--max-len-b N] [--min-len N]\n [--no-early-stop] [--unnormalized] [--no-beamable-mm]\n [--lenpen LENPEN] [--unkpen UNKPEN]\n [--replace-unk [REPLACE_UNK]] [--score-reference]\n [--prefix-size PS] [--sampling] [--sampling-topk PS]\n [--sampling-temperature N] [--print-alignment]\n [--model-overrides DICT] [--online-eval] \n [--bpe-codes CODES] [--fuse-dropout-add] [--fuse-relu-dropout]\n```\n\n### Getting the data\n\nThe Transformer model was trained on the [WMT14 English-German](http://statmt.org/wmt14/translation-task.html#Download) dataset. Concatenation of the *commoncrawl*, *europarl* and *news-commentary* is used as train and validation dataset and *newstest2014* is used as test dataset.
\nThis repository contains the `run_preprocessing.sh` script which will automatically downloads and preprocesses the training and test datasets. By default, data will be stored in the `/data/wmt14_en_de_joined_dict` directory.
\nOur download script utilizes [Moses decoder](https://github.com/moses-smt/mosesdecoder) to perform tokenization of the dataset and [subword-nmt](https://github.com/rsennrich/subword-nmt) to segment text into subword units (BPE). By default, the script builds a shared vocabulary of 33708 tokens, which is consistent with [Scaling Neural Machine Translation](https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.00187).\n\n#### Dataset guidelines\n\nThe Transformer model works with a fixed sized vocabulary. Prior to the training, we need to learn a data representation that allows us to store the entire dataset as a sequence of tokens. To achieve this we use Binary Pair Encoding. This algorithm builds a vocabulary by iterating over a dataset, looking for the most frequent pair of symbols and replacing them with a new symbol, yet absent in the dataset. After identifying the desired number of encodings (new symbols can also be merged together) it outputs a code file that is used as an input for the `Dictionary` class.\nThis approach does not minimize the length of the encoded dataset, however this is allowed using [SentencePiece](https://github.com/google/sentencepiece/) to tokenize the dataset with the unigram model. This approach tries to find encoding that is close to the theoretical entropy limit.\nData is then sorted by length (in terms of tokens) and examples with similar length are batched together, padded if necessary.\n\n#### Multi-dataset\n\nThe model has been tested oni the [wmt14 en-fr](http://www.statmt.org/wmt14/translation-task.html) dataset. Achieving state of the art accuracy of 41.4 BLEU.\n\n### Training process\n\nThe default training configuration can be launched by running the `train.py` training script. By default, the script saves one checkpoint every epoch in addition to the latest and the best ones. The best checkpoint is considered the one with the lowest value of loss, not the one with the highest BLEU score. To override this behavior use the `--save-interval $N` option to save epoch checkpoints every N epoch or `--no-epoch-checkpoints` to disable them entirely (with this option the latest and the best checkpoints still will be saved). Specify save the directory with `--save-dir` option.
\nIn order to run multi-GPU training, launch the training script with `python -m torch.distributed.launch --nproc_per_node $N` prepended, where N is the number of GPUs.\nWe have tested reliance on up to 16 GPUs on a single node.
\nAfter each training epoch, the script runs a loss validation on the validation split of the dataset and outputs the validation loss. By default the evaluation after each epoch is disabled. To enable it, use the `--online-eval` option or to use the BLEU score value as the training stopping condition use the `--target-bleu $TGT` option. The BLEU scores computed are case insensitive. The BLEU is computed by the internal fairseq algorithm which implementation can be found in the `fairseq/bleu.py` script.
\nBy default, the `train.py` script will launch FP32 training without Tensor Cores. To use mixed precision with Tensor Cores use the `--fp16` option.
\n\nTo reach the BLEU score reported in [Scaling Neural Machine Translation](https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.00187) research paper, we used mixed precision training with a batch size of 5120 per GPU and learning rate of 6e-4 on a DGX-1V system with 8 Tesla V100s 16G. If you use a different setup, we recommend you scale your hyperparameters by applying the following rules:\n1. To use FP32, reduce the batch size to 2560 and set the `--update-freq 2` option.\n2. To train on a fewer GPUs, multiply `--update-freq` by the reciprocal of the scaling factor.\n\nFor example, when training in FP32 mode on 4 GPUs, use the `--update-freq=4` option.\n\n### Inference process\n\nInference on a raw input can be performed by piping file to be translated into the `inference.py` script. It requires a pre-trained model checkpoint, BPE codes file and dictionary file (both are produced by the `run_preprocessing.sh` script and can be found in the dataset directory).
\nIn order to run interactive inference, run command:\n```\npython inference.py --path /path/to/your/checkpoint.pt --fuse-dropout-add --remove-bpe --bpe-codes /path/to/code/file\n```\nThe `--buffer-size` option allows the batching of input sentences up to `--max_token` length.\n\nTo test model checkpoint accuracy on wmt14 test set run following command:\n\n```bash\nsacrebleu -t wmt14/full -l en-de --echo src | python inference.py --buffer-size 5000 --path /path/to/your/checkpoint.pt --max-tokens 10240 --fuse-dropout-add --remove-bpe --bpe-codes /data/code --fp16 | sacrebleu -t wmt14/full -l en-de -lc\n```","hasAdvanced","performance","### Benchmarking\n\nThe following section shows how to run benchmarks measuring the model performance in training and inference modes.\n\n#### Training performance benchmark\n\nTo benchmark the training performance on a specific batch size, run `train.py` training script. Performance in tokens/s will be printed to standard output every N iterations, specified by the `--log-interval` option. Additionally performance and loss values will be logged by [dllogger](https://github.com/NVIDIA/dllogger) to the file specified in `--stat-file` option. Every line in the output file will be a valid JSON file prepended with `DLLL` prefix.\n\n#### Inference performance benchmark\n\nTo benchmark the inference performance on a specific batch size, run following command to start the benchmark\n```bash\nfor i in {1..10}; do sacrebleu -t wmt14/full -l en-de --echo src; done | python inference.py --buffer-size 5000 --path /path/to/your/checkpoint.pt --max-tokens 10240 --fuse-dropout-add --remove-bpe --bpe-codes /data/code --fp16 > /dev/null\n```\nResults will be printed to stderr.\n\n### Results\n\nThe following sections provide details on how we achieved our performance and accuracy in training and inference.\n\n#### Training accuracy results\n\nFollowing the spirit of the paper [A Call for Clarity in Reporting BLEU Scores](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1804.08771.pdf) we decided to change evaluation metric implemented in fairseq to [SacreBleu](https://github.com/mjpost/sacreBLEU) score. We have calculated that the new metric has almost linear relationship with the old one. We run linear regression on nearly 2000 checkpoints to discover that the SacreBleu score almost perfectly follows the formula: newScore = 0.978 * oldScore - 0.05.\n

\n \n
\n Figure 2. Linear relationship between old and new BLEU metric.\n

\nTo take into account the varibaility of the results we computed basic statistics that help us verify whether a model trains correctly. Evaluating nearly 2000 checkpoints from 20 runs, the best score we achieved is 28.09 BLEU (which corresponds to 28.77 old score). Variance of the score of the best performing model between those 20 runs is 0.011. Knowing that max statistic is skewed toward higher values we have also run studies which calculate threshold beyond which validation loss is no longer correlated with BLEU score.\nOf course our hope is that dev's set distribution is similar to test's set distribution and when validation loss drops, BLEU score rises. But due to the finiteness of the validation and test sets we expect that there is such a loss value that makes performance on both sets decoupled from each other. To find this point we used Pearson correlation coefficient as a metric. The results indicate that optimizing beyond 4.02 validation loss value is no longer beneficial for the BLEU score. Further optimization does not cause overfitting but results become stochastic.\nMean BLEU score after reaching 4.02 validation loss is 27.38. We observe variance of 0.08, which translate to nearly 0.3 BLEU average difference between mean score and obtained score.\n

\n \n
\n Figure 3. Validation loss vs BLEU score. Plots are trimmed to certain validation loss threshold.\n

\n\n##### Training accuracy: NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 40GB)\nOur results were obtained by running the `run_DGXA100_AMP_8GPU.sh` and `run_DGXA100_TF32_8GPU.sh` training scripts in the pytorch-22.06-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 40GB) GPUs. We report average accuracy over 6 runs. We consider a model trained when it reaches minimal validation loss. Time to train contains only training time without validation. Depending on a configuration and frequency of validation it can take up to additional minute per epoch. \n\n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Accuracy - TF32 | Accuracy - mixed precision | Time to train - TF32 | Time to train - mixed precision | Time to train speedup (TF32 to mixed precision) \n|---------|---------------------|------------------|-----------------------------|-------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------------------------\n| 8 | 10240 | 27.92 | 27.76 | 2.74 hours | 2.64 hours | x1.04\n\n##### Training accuracy: NVIDIA DGX-1 (8x V100 16GB)\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `run_DGX1_AMP_8GPU.sh` and `run_DGX1_FP32_8GPU.sh` training scripts in the pytorch-22.06-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 (8x V100 16GB) GPUs. We report average accuracy over 6 runs. We consider a model trained when it reaches minimal validation loss. Time to train contains only training time without validation. Depending on a configuration and frequency of validation it can take up to additional minute per epoch. Using mixed precision we could fit a larger batch size in the memory, further speeding up the training.\n\n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Accuracy - FP32 | Accuracy - mixed precision | Time to train - FP32 | Time to train - mixed precision | Time to train speedup (FP32 to mixed precision) \n|---------|---------------------|------------------|-----------------------------|-------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------------------------\n| 8 | 5120/2560 | 27.66 | 27.82 | 11.8 hours | 4.5 hours | x2.62\n\n#### Training performance results\n\n##### Training performance: NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 40GB)\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `run_DGXA100_AMP_8GPU.sh` and `run_DGXA100_TF32_8GPU.sh` training scripts in the pytorch-22.06-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 (8x A100 40GB) GPUs. Performance numbers (in tokens per second) were averaged over an entire training epoch.\n\n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Throughput - TF32 | Throughput - mixed precision | Throughput speedup (TF32 - mixed precision) | Weak scaling - TF32 | Weak scaling - mixed precision \n|--------|--------------------|----------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------|-----\n| 8 | 10240 | 347936 | 551599 | x1.59 | 6.81 | 6.72 \n| 4 | 10240 | 179245 | 286081 | x1.60 | 3.51 | 3.49\n| 1 | 10240 | 51057 | 82059 | x1.60 | 1 | 1\n\nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Quick Start Guide](#quick-start-guide).\n\n##### Training stability test\n\nThe following plot shows average validation loss curves for different configs. We can see that training with AMP O2 converges slightly slower that FP32 and TF32 training. In order to mitigate this, you can use option `--amp-level O1` at the cost of 20% performance drop compared to the default AMP setting.\n\n

\n \n
\n Figure 4. Validation loss curves\n

\n\n##### Training performance: NVIDIA DGX-1 (8x V100 16GB)\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `run_DGX1_AMP_8GPU.sh` and `run_DGX1_FP32_8GPU.sh` training scripts in the pytorch-22.06-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with (8x V100 16GB) GPUs. Performance numbers (in tokens per second) were averaged over an entire training epoch. Using mixed precision we could fit a larger batch size in the memory, further speeding up the training.\n\n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Throughput - FP32 | Throughput - mixed precision | Throughput speedup (FP32 - mixed precision) | Weak scaling - FP32 | Weak scaling - mixed precision \n|--------|--------------------|----------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------|-----\n| 8 | 5120/2560 | 59316 | 214656 | x3.62 | 6.79 | 6.52\n| 4 | 5120/2560 | 30204 | 109726 | x3.63 | 3.46 | 3.33\n| 1 | 5120/2560 | 8742 | 32942 | x3.77 | 1 | 1\n\nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Quick Start Guide](#quick-start-guide).\n\n##### Training performance: NVIDIA DGX-2 (16x V100 32GB)\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `run_DGX1_AMP_8GPU.sh` and `run_DGX1_FP32_8GPU.sh` training scripts setting number of GPUs to 16 in the pytorch-22.06-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-2 with (16x V100 32GB) GPUs. Performance numbers (in tokens per second) were averaged over an entire training epoch. Using mixed precision we could fit a larger batch size in the memory, further speeding up the training.\n\n| GPUs | Batch size / GPU | Throughput - FP32 | Throughput - mixed precision | Throughput speedup (FP32 - mixed precision) | Weak scaling - FP32 | Weak scaling - mixed precision \n|--------|--------------------|----------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------|-----\n| 16 | 10240/5120 | 136253 | 517227 | x3.80 | 13.87 | 12.96\n| 8 | 10240/5120 | 68929 | 267815 | x3.89 | 7.01 | 6.71\n| 4 | 10240/5120 | 35216 | 137703 | x3.91 | 3.58 | 3.45\n| 1 | 10240/5120 | 9827 | 39911 | x4.06 | 1 | 1 \n\nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Quick Start Guide](#quick-start-guide).\n\n#### Inference performance results\n\nOur implementation of the Transformer has dynamic batching algorithm, which batches sentences together in such a way that there are no more than `N` tokens in each batch or no more than `M` sentences in each batch. In this benchmark we use the first option in order to get the most stable results.\n\n##### Inference performance: NVIDIA DGX A100 (1x A100 40GB)\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `inference.py` inferencing benchmarking script in the pytorch-22.06-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX A100 (1x A100 40GB) GPU.\n\n| Precision | Batch size | Throughput Avg | Latency Avg | Latency 90% |Latency 95% |Latency 99% |\n|-----------|------------|----------------|-------------|-------------|------------|------------|\n| TF32 | 10240 | 7105 | 1.22s | 1.67s | 1.67s | 1.67s |\n| FP16 | 10240 | 7988 | 1.09s | 1.73s | 1.73s | 1.73s |\n\nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Quick Start Guide](#quick-start-guide).\n\n##### Inference performance: NVIDIA DGX-1 (1x V100 16GB)\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `inference.py` inferencing benchmarking script in the pytorch-22.06-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with (1x V100 16GB) GPU.\n\n| Precision | Batch size | Throughput Avg | Latency Avg | Latency 90% | Latency 95% | Latency 99% |\n|-----------|------------|----------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|\n| FP32 | 10240 | 3461 | 2.51s | 3.19 s | 3.19s | 3.19s |\n| FP16 | 10240 | 5983 | 1.45s | 2.03 s | 2.03s | 2.03s |\n\nTo achieve these same results, follow the steps in the [Quick Start Guide](#quick-start-guide).","hasPerformance",[],{"_85":181,"_112":234,"_113":-5,"_121":34,"_120":34,"_122":233,"_217":90},{"_85":28,"_112":28,"_113":-5,"_121":34,"_120":34,"_122":233,"_217":90},[],"Latest (22.06.0)","nvidia/dle/transformer_pyt","key","nvidia/dle/resources/transformer_pyt","resourceId","transformer_pyt","shortDescription","This implementation of Transformer model architecture is based on the optimized implementation in Fairseq NLP toolkit.","This resource is using open-source code maintained in github (see the quick-start-guide section) and available for download from [NGC](https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com/orgs/nvidia/teams/dle/resources/transformer-pyt)\n\n\nThe Transformer is a Neural Machine Translation (NMT) model which uses attention mechanism to boost training speed and overall accuracy. The Transformer model was introduced in [Attention Is All You Need](https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762) and improved in [Scaling Neural Machine Translation](https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.00187).\nThis implementation is based on the optimized implementation in [Facebook's Fairseq NLP toolkit](https://github.com/pytorch/fairseq), built on top of PyTorch.\n\nThis model is trained with mixed precision using Tensor Cores on NVIDIA Volta, Turing and Ampere GPU architectures. Therefore, researchers can get results 6.5x faster than training without Tensor Cores, while experiencing the benefits of mixed precision training. This model is tested against each NGC monthly container release to ensure consistent accuracy and performance over time.\n\n### Model architecture\n\nThe Transformer model uses standard NMT encoder-decoder architecture. This model unlike other NMT models, uses no recurrent connections and operates on fixed size context window.\nThe encoder stack is made up of N identical layers. Each layer is composed of the following sublayers:\n 1. Self-attention layer\n 2. Feedforward network (which is 2 fully-connected layers)\nLike the encoder stack, the decoder stack is made up of N identical layers. Each layer is composed of the sublayers:\n 1. Self-attention layer\n 2. Multi-headed attention layer combining encoder outputs with results from\n the previous self-attention layer.\n 3. Feedforward network (2 fully-connected layers)\n\nThe encoder uses self-attention to compute a representation of the input sequence. The decoder generates the output sequence one token at a time, taking the encoder output and previous decoder-outputted tokens as inputs.\nThe model also applies embeddings on the input and output tokens, and adds a constant positional encoding. The positional encoding adds information about the position of each token.\n\n

\n \n
\n Figure 1. The architecture of a Transformer model.\n

\n\nThe complete description of the Transformer architecture can be found in [Attention Is All You Need](https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762) paper.\n### Default configuration\n\nThe Transformer uses Byte Pair Encoding tokenization scheme using [Moses decoder](https://github.com/moses-smt/mosesdecoder). This is a lossy compression method (we drop information about white spaces). Tokenization is applied over whole [WMT14](http://statmt.org/wmt14/translation-task.html#Download) en-de dataset including test set. Default vocabulary size is 33708, excluding all special tokens. Encoder and decoder are using shared embeddings.\nWe use 6 blocks in each encoder and decoder stacks. Self attention layer computes it's outputs according to the following formula $`Attention(Q,K,V) = softmax(\\frac{QK^T}{\\sqrt{d_k}})V`$. At each attention step, the model computes 16 different attention representations (which we will call attention heads) and concatenates them.\nWe trained the Transformer model using the Adam optimizer with betas `(0.9, 0.997)`, epsilon `1e-9` and learning rate `6e-4`. We used the inverse square root training schedule preceded with linear warmup of 4000 steps.\nThe implementation allows to perform training in mixed precision. We use dynamic loss scaling and custom mixed precision optimizer. Distributed multi-GPU and multi-Node is implemented with `torch.distirbuted` module with NCCL backend.\nFor inference, we use beam search with default beam size of 5. Model performance is evaluated with BLEU4 metrics. For clarity, we report internal (legacy) BLEU implementation as well as external [SacreBleu](https://github.com/mjpost/sacreBLEU) score.\n\n### Feature support matrix\n\nThe following features are supported by this model.
\n\n| Feature | Yes column \n|--------------------------|--------------------------\n| Multi-GPU training with [Distributed Communication Package](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/distributed.html) | Yes \n| Nvidia APEX | Yes \n| AMP | Yes\n| TorchScript | Yes\n\n#### Features\n\n* Multi-GPU training with [Distributed Communication Package](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/distributed.html): Our model uses torch.distributed package to implement efficient multi-GPU training with NCCL.\nTo enable multi-GPU training with torch.distributed, you have to initialize your model identically in every process spawned by torch.distributed.launch. Distributed strategy is implemented with APEX's DistributedDataParallel.\nFor details, see example sources in this repo or see the [pytorch tutorial](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/distributed.html)\n\n* Nvidia APEX: The purpose of the APEX is to provide easy and intuitive framework for distributed training and mixed precision training. For details, see official [APEX repository](https://github.com/NVIDIA/apex).\n\n* AMP: This implementation uses Apex's AMP to perform mixed precision training.\n\n* TorchScript: Transformer can be converted to TorchScript format offering ease of deployment on platforms without Python dependencies. For more information see official [TorchScript](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/jit.html) documentation.\n\n### Mixed precision training\nMixed precision is the combined use of different numerical precisions in a computational method. [Mixed precision](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) training offers significant computational speedup by performing operations in half-precision format, while storing minimal information in single-precision to retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network. Since the introduction of [Tensor Cores](https://developer.nvidia.com/tensor-cores) in the Volta and Turing architecture, significant training speedups are experienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup on the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using mixed precision training requires two steps:\n1. Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate. \n2. Adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.\n\nThe ability to train deep learning networks with lower precision was introduced in the Pascal architecture and first supported in [CUDA 8](https://devblogs.nvidia.com/parallelforall/tag/fp16/) in the NVIDIA Deep Learning SDK.\n\nFor information about:\n- How to train using mixed precision, see the [Mixed Precision Training](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) paper and [Training With Mixed Precision](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html) documentation.\n- Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the [Mixed-Precision Training of Deep Neural Networks](https://devblogs.nvidia.com/mixed-precision-training-deep-neural-networks/) blog.\n- APEX tools for mixed precision training, see the [NVIDIA Apex: Tools for Easy Mixed-Precision Training in PyTorch](https://devblogs.nvidia.com/apex-pytorch-easy-mixed-precision-training/).\n\n#### Enabling mixed precision\n\nMixed precision is enabled using the `--amp` option in the `train.py` script. The default is optimization level `O2` but can be overriden with `--amp-level $LVL` option (for details see [amp documentation](https://nvidia.github.io/apex/amp.html)). Forward and backward pass are computed with FP16 precision with exclusion of a loss function which is computed in FP32 precision. Default optimization level keeps a copy of a model in higher precision in order to perform accurate weight update. After the update FP32 weights are again copied to FP16 model. We use dynamic loss scaling with initial scale of 2^7 increasing it by a factor of 2 every 2000 successful iterations. Overflow is being checked after reducing gradients from all of the workers. If we encounter infs or nans the whole batch is dropped.\n\n#### Enabling TF32\nTensorFloat-32 (TF32) is the new math mode in [NVIDIA A100](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/) GPUs for handling the matrix math also called tensor operations. TF32 running on Tensor Cores in A100 GPUs can provide up to 10x speedups compared to single-precision floating-point math (FP32) on Volta GPUs. \n\nTF32 Tensor Cores can speed up networks using FP32, typically with no loss of accuracy. It is more robust than FP16 for models which require high dynamic range for weights or activations.\n\nFor more information, refer to the [TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x](https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2020/05/14/tensorfloat-32-precision-format/) blog post.\n\nTF32 is supported in the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architecture and is enabled by default.\n\n### Glossary\n\nAttention layer - Layer that computes which elements of input sequence or it's hidden representation contribute the most to the currently considered output element. \nBeam search - A heuristic search algorithm which at each step of predictions keeps N most possible outputs as a base to perform further prediction. \nBPE - Binary Pair Encoding, compression algorithm that find most common pair of symbols in a data and replaces them with new symbol absent in the data. \nEOS - End of a sentence. \nSelf attention layer - Attention layer that computes hidden representation of input using the same tensor as query, key and value. \nToken - A string that is representable within the model. We also refer to the token's position in the dictionary as a token. There are special non-string tokens: alphabet tokens (all characters in a dataset), EOS token, PAD token. \nTokenizer - Object that converts raw strings to sequences of tokens. \nVocabulary embedding - Layer that projects one-hot token representations to a high dimensional space which preserves some information about correlations between tokens.","displayName","Transformer for PyTorch",["D",1680631848302],"publisher","NVIDIA Deep Learning Examples","latestVersion","collectionCounts","imageUrl","/api/image/nvidia/dle/resources/transformer_pyt","rawImageUrl","https://assets.nvidiagrid.net/ngc/logos/Deep-Learning-Examples.png","canGuestDownload","latestVersionSizeInBytes","licenseTerms","isMultinodeEnabled","isMultiArchitecture","bias","explainability","privacy","safetyAndSecurity","featureLabels",[],"displayLabels",[274],"policyLabels",[],"systemLabels",[],"products",[],"hasNimMetadata",{"_243":275,"_276":277,"_278":279,"_280":87},"Natural Language Understanding","value","uscs_natural_language_understanding","filter",{"_281":282,"_276":277},"category","field","application",{"_150":1458,"_152":1459},"ngcApps",[1411],"csaApiBaseUrl","https://www.nvidia.com/ai-agents/csa-agent/dcsm","datadogRum",{"_1392":1393,"_1394":1395,"_1396":1397,"_1398":1399,"_1400":294,"_109":318,"_1401":1402,"_1403":59,"_1404":90,"_1405":90,"_1406":1407,"_1408":90,"_1409":1410},"amplitude",{"_1389":1390,"_991":-7,"_1391":34},"disableJs","environment","prod","featureFlagsBlob","JTdCJTIydGVzdEZsYWclMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMnNob3dTZWFyY2hMYWJlbFNldEZpbHRlcnMlMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMmNoaW5hTmltRGlzdHJpYnV0b3JzUmVkZXNpZ24lMjIlM0F0cnVlJTJDJTIyZW5hYmxlQ3NhV2lkZ2V0JTIyJTNBZmFsc2UlMkMlMjJlbmFibGVQcm9kdWN0R3JvdXBpbmdCeVN1YnNjcmlwdGlvbiUyMiUzQWZhbHNlJTJDJTIyY29udGFpbmVyU2Nhbm5pbmdSZWRlc2lnbk0xJTIyJTNBdHJ1ZSU3RA==","featureFlagsGuarded","isDevLikeEnv","isPlaywright","isMobileDevice","categorizedOrgs",{"_1383":1384,"_1385":1386,"_1387":1388},"currentOrgContext","currentContextRoles",[],"enterpriseOrgs",[],"locale","en","ngcApiOrigin","ngcHelmOrigin","origin","https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com","usesMocks","theme","year",2026,"1.7.3","defaultSearchSuggestions",{"_1266":398,"_1267":1268,"_1269":1270,"_1271":1272},"announcements",[],"consentState",{"_355":1256,"_1257":90,"_1258":34,"_1259":34,"_1260":1261},"consentConfig",{"_337":338,"_339":340,"_341":342,"_343":344,"_345":346,"_347":348,"_349":350,"_351":352,"_353":354,"_355":356},"showContactAdmin",1784103442396,[],[],[332,333,334,335,336],{"_48":63,"_50":73,"_52":69,"_54":-5,"_56":-5,"_58":59},{"_48":63,"_50":70,"_52":69,"_54":-5,"_56":-5,"_58":59},{"_48":63,"_50":64,"_52":69,"_54":-5,"_56":-5,"_58":59},{"_48":60,"_50":61,"_52":69,"_54":-5,"_56":-5,"_58":59},{"_48":49,"_50":51,"_52":69,"_54":-5,"_56":-5,"_58":59},"mainInfoText","We and our third-party partners (including social media, advertising, and analytics partners) use cookies and other tracking technologies to collect, store, monitor, and process certain information about you when you visit our website. 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It is used as a URL shortening service, which allows Twitter to collect data on how links are shared.","snowplow.com",[436],{"_112":437,"_403":434,"_404":34,"_211":438},"sp","Testing","google.com",[441],{"_112":442,"_403":439,"_404":34,"_211":443},"NID","This domain is owned by Google Inc. Although Google is primarily known as a search engine, the company provides a diverse range of products and services. Its main source of revenue however is advertising. Google tracks users extensively both through its own products and sites, and the numerous technologies embedded into many millions of websites around the world. It uses the data gathered from most of these services to profile the interests of web users and sell advertising space to organisations based on such interest profiles as well as aligning adverts to the content on the pages where its customer's adverts appear.","tags.srv.stackadapt.com",[446,447,448,449],{"_112":454,"_403":444,"_404":34,"_211":451},{"_112":453,"_403":444,"_404":34,"_211":451},{"_112":452,"_403":444,"_404":34,"_211":451},{"_112":450,"_403":444,"_404":34,"_211":451},"sa-user-id-v3","This domain is associated with StackAdapt, a platform for programmatic advertising, which suggests that it is used for targeting and advertising purposes.","sa-user-id","sa-user-id-v2","sa-user-id-v4","linkedin.com",[457],{"_112":458,"_403":455,"_404":34,"_211":459},"bcookie","This domain is owned by LinkedIn, the business networking platform. 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As part of our bot management service, this cookie helps manage incoming traffic that matches criteria associated with bots.\nThis is a CloudFoundry cookie","OptanonConsent","nvid.nvidia.com","This cookie is set by the cookie compliance solution from OneTrust. It stores information about the categories of cookies the site uses and whether visitors have given or withdrawn consent for the use of each category. This enables site owners to prevent cookies in each category from being set in the users browser, when consent is not given. The cookie has a normal lifespan of one year, so that returning visitors to the site will have their preferences remembered. It contains no information that can identify the site visitor.","events.nvidia.com","This cookie is associated with the Amazon Web Services Elastic Load Balancing functionality for routing client request on the server.Used to attribute commission to affiliates when you arrive at the website from an affiliate referral link. It is set when you click on one of our links and used to let the advertiser and us know the website from which you came.","sessionid","This is a very generic cookie name that may have different purposes on different sites, but generally it will be some kind of anonymous session identifier.","_csrf","This cookie is used to prevent Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF) attacks, ensuring that each request made to the server is from the user's browser and is intentional.","enterprise-support.nvidia.com","Used to apply end-user cookie consent preferences set by our client-side utility.Custom- Short Duration. Unique ID of an Enquiry- used to validate access to case, and load exisiting data.\n","renderCtx","academicgrants.nvidia.com","Used to store site parameters in the session for reuse across requests by a single client for functionality and performance reasons.","ph_phc_yQgAEdJJkVpI24NdSRID2mor1x1leRpDoC9yZ9mfXal_posthog","The PostHog ph_phc_xxx cookie is a session cookie used for identifying and tracking visitors on websites, helping us understand user behavior and website performance.","This cookie is managed by AWS and is used for load balancing.Used to attribute commission to affiliates when you arrive at the website from an affiliate referral link. It is set when you click on one of our links and used to let the advertiser and us know the website from which you came.","This cookie is associated with Akamai and is used to differentiate between traffic from humans and bots.","OptanonAlertBoxClosed","docs.ngc.nvidia.com","This cookie is set by websites using certain versions of the cookie law compliance solution from OneTrust. It is set after visitors have seen a cookie information notice and in some cases only when they actively close the notice down. It enables the website not to show the message more than once to a user. The cookie has a normal lifespan of one year and contains no personal information.","nv_co","__uxq412__ses.88c1","investor.nvidia.com","learn.learn.nvidia.com","This cookie is associated with the Amazon Web Services Elastic Load Balancing functionality for routing client request on the server.","pctrk","Used to count page views by unauthenticated users against license usage.","bm_s","bpazaws52gukakzc__ctrl0_ctl36_uccaptcha","bm_sv","store.nvidia.com","The __cf_bm cookie is a cookie necessary to support Cloudflare Bot Management, currently in private beta. As part of our bot management service, this cookie helps manage incoming traffic that matches criteria associated with bots.\n","This cookie name is used by DataDog to determine if cookies are supported on the website.dd_cookie_test","AMP_TLDTEST_xxxxxxxx","SESSlsd","This cookie is likely to be a session identifier used to maintain user session state across page requests.","mboxEdgeCluster","This cookie name is associated with Adobe Target which is used to communicate the correct edge cluster to at.js so that Target profiles can stay in sync as users navigate across a site.","_biz_pendingA","_rdt_em","This cookie name is associated with Reddit which is used to manage session state and user interactions.","megaNavCollapsed","_abck","The _abck cookie is associated with Akamai's Bot Manager, which is used to prevent fraud and abuse by safeguarding online interactions and detecting irregularities that could suggest malicious activity, such as bot-driven attacks or hacking attempts.","AMP_TEST","This cookie name AMP_TEST is used for internal analytics by the website operator, necessary for the functionality of the website's chat-box function, and to check whether the cookie storage is working properly.","idccsrf","This cookie name is associated with Salesforce which is used to track CrossSiteRequestForgery validation for certain single sign-on (SSO) flows.","_biz_flagsA","This cookie is used to remember users' settings as well as for authentication and analytics.","ApplicationGatewayAffinity","partners.nvidia.com","This cookie is used to maintain a user session by the server in a load balanced environment, to ensure the user has a consistent experience.","AMP_TEST_xxxxxxxx","bm_lso","This cookie name is associated with Akamai which is used to load the site as quickly as possible and to recognize bots.","SSESS###########","This cookie is likely to be a session cookie used to maintain an anonymized user session by the server in a secure environment, often seen in sites built with the Drupal content management system.","nvdeveloper.nvidia.com","__uxq412__id.88c1","QueueITAccepted-SDFrts345E-V3_{eventId}","TEST_AMCV_COOKIE_WRITE","This cookie is used to test whether cookies are enabled in the browser. 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It is set when you click on one of our links and used to let the advertiser and us know the website from which you came.","_devzone_session","This cookie is likely used to maintain a user session on the website by the server. It is common for session identifiers to be used to keep users logged in and track their interaction with the site during a session.","_cs_c","The cookie is used by Content Square to save the user consent to be tracked.","bm_sz","This cookie is used by Akamai to optimize site performance and security. It is typically associated with the delivery of web content and services.","vcalliance.nvidia.com","ASP.NET_SessionId","General purpose platform session cookie, used by sites written with Microsoft .NET based technologies. 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