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Release Notes

Mar 18, 2019

first release
also available in github

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The SSD300 v1.1 model is based on the\nSSD: Single Shot MultiBox Detector paper, which\ndescribes SSD as \"a method for detecting objects in images using a single deep neural network\".\nThe input size is fixed to 300x300.

The main difference between this model and the one described in the paper is in the backbone.\nSpecifically, the VGG model is obsolete and is replaced by the ResNet-50 model.

From the\nSpeed/accuracy trade-offs for modern convolutional object detectors\npaper, the following enhancements were made to the backbone:

The conv5_x, avgpool, fc and softmax layers were removed from the original classification model.
All strides in conv4_x are set to 1x1.

Detector heads are similar to the ones referenced in the paper, however,\nthey are enhanced by additional BatchNorm layers after each convolution.

Additionally, we removed weight decay on every bias parameter and\nall the BatchNorm layer parameters as described in the\nHighly Scalable Deep Learning Training System with Mixed-Precision:\nTraining ImageNet in Four Minutes paper.

Training of SSD requires computational costly augmentations.\nTo fully utilize GPUs during training we are using the\nNVIDIA DALI library\nto accelerate data preparation pipelines.

This model is trained with mixed precision using Tensor Cores on Volta, Turing,\nand the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architectures. Therefore, researchers can get results\n2x faster than training without Tensor Cores, while experiencing the benefits of\nmixed precision training. This model is tested against each NGC monthly\ncontainer release to ensure consistent accuracy and performance over time.

Model architecture

Despite the changes described in the previous section,\nthe overall architecture, as described in the following diagram, has not changed.

\n \n
\nFigure 1. The architecture of a Single Shot MultiBox Detector model. Image has been taken from the Single Shot MultiBox Detector paper.\n

The backbone is followed by 5 additional convolutional layers.\nIn addition to the convolutional layers, we attached 6 detection heads:

The first detection head is attached to the last conv4_x layer.
The other five detection heads are attached to the corresponding 5 additional layers.

Default configuration

We trained the model for 65 epochs with the following setup:

SGD with momentum (0.9)
Learning rate = 2.6e-3 * number of GPUs * (batch_size / 32)
Learning rate decay – multiply by 0.1 before 43 and 54 epochs
We use linear warmup of the learning rate during the first epoch.

For more information, see the\nAccurate, Large Minibatch SGD: Training ImageNet in 1 Hour paper.

To enable warmup provide argument the --warmup 300

Weight decay:\n* 0 for BatchNorms and biases\n* 5e-4 for other layers

Note: The learning rate is automatically scaled (in other words, multiplied\nby the number of GPUs and multiplied by the batch size divided by 32).

Feature support matrix

The following features are supported by this model.

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

tr:nth-child(odd)]:bg-surface-sunken\">

Feature	SSD300 v1.1 PyTorch
AMP	Yes
APEX DDP	Yes
NVIDIA DALI	Yes

Features

AMP is an abbreviation used for automatic mixed precision training.

DDP stands for DistributedDataParallel and is used for multi-GPU training.

NVIDIA DALI - DALI is a library accelerating data preparation pipeline.\nTo accelerate your input pipeline, you only need to define your data loader\nwith the DALI library.\nFor details, see example sources in this repo or see\nthe DALI documentation

Mixed precision training

Mixed precision is the combined use of different numerical precisions in\na computational method. Mixed precision\ntraining offers significant computational speedup by performing operations\nin half-precision format, while storing minimal information in single-precision\nto retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network.\nSince the introduction of Tensor Cores\nin Volta, and following with both the Turing and Ampere architectures, significant training speedups are\nexperienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup\non the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using mixed precision\ntraining requires two steps:

Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate.
Adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.

The ability to train deep learning networks with lower precision was introduced\nin the Pascal architecture and first supported in CUDA 8\nin the NVIDIA Deep Learning SDK.

For information about:

How to train using mixed precision, see the Mixed Precision Training\npaper and Training With Mixed Precision\ndocumentation.
Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the Mixed-Precision\nTraining of Deep Neural Networks\nblog.
PyTorch AMP, see the PyTorch Automatic Mixed Precision package.

Enabling mixed precision

Mixed precision is enabled in PyTorch by using the Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP)\nautocast torch.cuda.amp.autocast which casts variables\nto half-precision upon retrieval, while storing variables in single-precision format.\nFurthermore, to preserve small gradient magnitudes in backpropagation,\na gradient scaling\nstep must be included.

For an in-depth walk through on AMP, check out sample usage\nhere.

Enabling TF32

TensorFloat-32 (TF32) is the new math mode in NVIDIA A100 GPUs for handling the matrix math also called tensor operations. TF32 running on Tensor Cores in A100 GPUs can provide up to 10x speedups compared to single-precision floating-point math (FP32) on Volta GPUs.

TF32 Tensor Cores can speed up networks using FP32, typically with no loss of accuracy. It is more robust than FP16 for models which require high dynamic range for weights or activations.

For more information, refer to the TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x blog post.

TF32 is supported in the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architecture and is enabled by default.

Glossary

backbone\n: a part of a many object detection architectures, usually pre-trained for a different,\nsimpler task, like classification.

input pipeline\n: set of operations performed for every item in input data before feeding the neural\nnetwork. Especially for object detection task, the input pipeline can be complex\nand computationally significant. For that reason, solutions like NVIDIA DALI emerged.

object detection\n: a subset of Computer Vision problem. The task of object detection is to localize\npossibly multiple objects on the image and classify them. The difference between\nObject Detection, Image Classification, and Localization are clearly explained in the\nvideo published as a part of the C4W3L01 course.

SSD (Single Shot MultiBox Detector)\n: a name for the detection model described in a paper authored by Liu at al.

ResNet (ResNet-50)\n: a name for the classification model described in a paper authored by He et al.\nIn this repo, it is used as a backbone for SSD.

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Aside from these dependencies, ensure you have the following software:\n* [NVIDIA Docker](https://github.com/NVIDIA/nvidia-docker)\n* [PyTorch 19.03-py3 NGC container](https://ngc.nvidia.com/registry/nvidia-pytorch)\n* [NVIDIA Volta based GPU](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/volta-gpu-architecture/)\n\nFor more information about how to get started with NGC containers, see the\nfollowing sections from the NVIDIA GPU Cloud Documentation and the Deep Learning\nDocumentation:\n* [Getting Started Using NVIDIA GPU Cloud](https://docs.nvidia.com/ngc/ngc-getting-started-guide/index.html)\n* [Accessing And Pulling From The NGC Container Registry](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/user-guide/index.html#accessing_registry)\n* [Running PyTorch](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/dgx/pytorch-release-notes/running.html#running)","hasSetup","quickStartGuide","## Quick Start Guide\nTo train your model using mixed precision with Tensor Cores, perform the\nfollowing steps using the default parameters of the SSD v1.1 model on the\n[COCO 2017](http://cocodataset.org/#download) dataset.\n\n### 1. Download and preprocess the dataset.\n\nExtract the COCO 2017 dataset with `download_dataset.sh $COCO_DIR`.\nData will be downloaded to the `$COCO_DIR` directory (on the host).\n\n### 2. Build the SSD300 v1.1 PyTorch NGC container.\n\n` docker build . -t nvidia_ssd `\n\n### 3. Launch the NGC container to run training/inference.\n`nvidia-docker run --rm -it --ulimit memlock=-1 --ulimit stack=67108864 -v $COCO_DIR:/coco --ipc=host nvidia_ssd`\n\n\n**Note**: the default mount point in the container is `/coco`.\n\n### 4. Start training.\n\nThe `./examples` directory provides several sample scripts for various GPU settings\nand act as wrappers around the main.py script.\nThe example scripts need two arguments:\n- A path to root SSD directory.\n- A path to COCO 2017 dataset.\n\nRemaining arguments are passed to the `main.py` script.\n\nThe `--save` flag, saves the model after each epoch.\nThe checkpoints are stored as `./models/epoch_*.pt`.\n\nUse `python main.py -h` to obtain the list of available options in the `main.py` script.\nFor example, if you want to run 8 GPU training with TensorCore acceleration and\nsave checkpoints after each epoch, run:\n\n`bash ./examples/SSD300_FP16_8GPU.sh . /coco --save`\n\nFor information about how to train using mixed precision, see the [Mixed Precision Training paper](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) and [Training With Mixed Precision documentation](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html).\n\nFor PyTorch, easily adding mixed-precision support is available from NVIDIA's [APEX](https://github.com/NVIDIA/apex), a PyTorch extension that contains utility libraries, such as AMP, which require minimal network code changes to leverage tensor cores performance.\n\n\n### 5. Start validation/evaluation.\n\n\nThe `main.py` training script automatically runs validation during training.\nThe results from the validation are printed to stdout.\n\nPycocotools' open-sourced scripts provides a consistent way to evaluate models on the COCO dataset. We are using these scripts during validation to measure models performance in AP metric. Metrics below are evaluated using pycocotools' methodology, in the following format:\n```\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= all | maxDets=100 ] = 0.250\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50 | area= all | maxDets=100 ] = 0.423\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.75 | area= all | maxDets=100 ] = 0.257\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= small | maxDets=100 ] = 0.076\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area=medium | maxDets=100 ] = 0.269\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= large | maxDets=100 ] = 0.399\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= all | maxDets= 1 ] = 0.237\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= all | maxDets= 10 ] = 0.342\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= all | maxDets=100 ] = 0.358\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= small | maxDets=100 ] = 0.118\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area=medium | maxDets=100 ] = 0.394\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= large | maxDets=100 ] = 0.548\n```\nThe metric reported in our results is present in the first row.\n\nTo evaluate a checkpointed model saved in previous point, run:\n\n`python ./main.py --backbone resnet50 --mode evaluation --checkpoint ./models/epoch_*.pt --data /coco`\n\n### 6. Optionally, resume training from a checkpointed model.\n\n`python ./main.py --backbone resnet50 --checkpoint ./models/epoch_*.pt --data /coco`\n\n### Details\n\nThe following sections provide greater details of the dataset, running training and inference, and the training results.\n\n#### Command line arguments\nAll these parameters can be controlled by passing command line arguments to the `main.py` script. To get a complete list of all command line arguments with descriptions and default values you can run:\n\n`python main.py --help`\n\n#### Getting the data\n\nThe SSD model was trained on the COCO 2017 dataset. The val2017 validation set was used as a validation dataset. PyTorch can work directly on JPEGs, therefore, preprocessing/augmentation is not needed.\n\nThis repository contains the `download_dataset.sh` download script which will automatically\ndownload and preprocess the training, validation and test datasets. By default,\ndata will be downloaded to the `/coco` directory.\n\n#### Training process\nTraining the SSD model is implemented in the `main.py` script. \n\nBy default, training is running for 65 epochs. Because evaluation is relatively time consuming,\nit is not running every epoch. With default settings, evaluation is executed after epochs:\n21, 31, 37, 42, 48, 53, 59, 64. The model is evaluated using pycocotools distributed with\nthe COCO dataset.\n Which epochs should be evaluated can be reconfigured with argument `--evaluation`.\n\nTo run training with Tensor Cores, use the `--fp16` flag when running the `main.py` script.\nThe flag `--save` flag enables storing checkpoints after each epoch under `./models/epoch_*.pt`.\n\n##### Data preprocessing\nBefore we feed data to the model, both during training and inference, we perform:\n*\tNormalization\n*\tEncoding bounding boxes\n* Resize to 300x300\n\n##### Data augmentation\nDuring training we perform the following augmentation techniques:\n*\tRandom crop\n*\tRandom horizontal flip\n*\tColor jitter\n\n\n\n#### Enabling mixed precision\n[Mixed precision](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) training offers significant computational speedup by performing operations in half-precision format, while storing minimal information in single-precision to retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network. Since the introduction of [tensor cores](https://developer.nvidia.com/tensor-cores) in the Volta and Turing architectures, significant training speedups are experienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup on the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using [mixed precision](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html) training previously required two steps:\n1. Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate.\n2. Manually adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.\n \nMixed precision is enabled in PyTorch by using the Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP), library from [APEX](https://github.com/NVIDIA/apex) that casts variables to half-precision upon retrieval,\nwhile storing variables in single-precision format. Furthermore, to preserve small gradient magnitudes in backpropagation, a [loss scaling](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html#lossscaling) step must be included when applying gradients.\nIn PyTorch, loss scaling can be easily applied by using scale_loss() method provided by amp. The scaling value to be used can be dynamic or fixed.\n\nFor an in-depth walk through on AMP, check out sample usage [here](https://github.com/NVIDIA/apex/tree/master/apex/amp#usage-and-getting-started). [APEX](https://github.com/NVIDIA/apex) is a PyTorch extension that contains utility libraries, such as AMP, which require minimal network code changes to leverage tensor cores performance.\n\nTo enable mixed precision, you can:\n- Import AMP from APEX, for example:\n\n `from apex import amp`\n- Initialize an AMP handle, for example: \n\n `amp_handle = amp.init(enabled=True, verbose=True)`\n- Wrap your optimizer with the AMP handle, for example:\n\n `optimizer = amp_handle.wrap_optimizer(optimizer)`\n- Scale loss before backpropagation (assuming loss is stored in a variable called losses)\n - Default backpropagate for FP32:\n\n `losses.backward()`\n - Scale loss and backpropagate with AMP:\n\n ```\n with optimizer.scale_loss(losses) as scaled_losses:\n scaled_losses.backward()\n ```\n\nFor information about:\n- How to train using mixed precision, see the [Mixed Precision Training](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740) paper and [Training With Mixed Precision](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html) documentation.\n- Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the [Mixed-Precision Training of Deep Neural Networks](https://devblogs.nvidia.com/mixed-precision-training-deep-neural-networks/) blog.","hasQuickStartGuide","advanced","The following sections provide greater details of the dataset,\nrunning training and inference, and the training results.\n\n### Scripts and sample code\n\nIn the root directory, the most important files are:\n - `main.py`: the script that controls the logic of training and validation of the SSD300 v1.1 model;\n - `Dockerfile`: Instructions for docker to build a container with the basic set of dependencies to run SSD300 v1.1;\n - `requirements.txt`: a set of extra Python requirements for running SSD300 v1.1;\n - `download_dataset.py`: automatically downloads the COCO dataset for training.\n\nThe `ssd/` directory contains modules used to train and evaluate the SSD300 v1.1 model\n - `model.py`: the definition of SSD300 v1.1 model\n - `data.py`: definition of input pipelines used in training and evaluation\n - `train.py`: functions used to train the SSD300 v1.1 model\n - `evaluate.py`: functions used to evaluate the SSD300 v1.1 model\n - `coco_pipeline.py`: definition of input pipeline using NVIDIA DALI\n - `coco.py`: code specific for the COCO dataset\n - `logger.py`: utilities for logging\n - `utils.py`: extra utility functions\n\nThe `examples/` directory contains scripts wrapping common scenarios.\n\n### Parameters\n\n#### The script `main.py`\nThe script for training end evaluating the SSD300 v1.1 model have a variety\nof parameters that control these processes.\n\n##### Common parameters\n`--data`\n: use it to specify, where your dataset is. By default, the script will look for it\nunder the `/coco` directory.\n\n`--checkpoint`\n: allows you to specify the path to the pre-trained model.\n\n`--save`\n: when the flag is turned on, the script will save the trained model checkpoints in the specified directory\n\n`--seed`\n: Use it to specify the seed for RNGs.\n\n`--amp`\n: when the flag is turned on, the AMP features will be enabled.\n\n##### Training related\n\n`--epochs`\n: a number of times the model will see every example from the training dataset.\n\n`--evaluation`\n: after this parameter, list the number of epochs after which evaluation should\nbe performed.\n\n`--learning-rate`\n: initial learning rate.\n\n`--multistep`\n: after this parameter, list the epochs after which learning rate should be decayed.\n\n`--warmup`\n: allows you to specify the number of iterations for which a linear learning-rate\nwarmup will be performed.\n\n`--momentum`\n: momentum argument for SGD optimizer.\n\n`--weight-decay`\n: weight decay argument for SGD optimizer.\n\n`--batch-size`\n: a number of inputs processed at once for each iteration.\n\n`--backbone-path`\n: the path to the checkpointed backbone. When it is not provided, a pre-trained model from torchvision\nwill be downloaded.\n\n##### Evaluation related\n\n`--eval-batch-size`\n: a number of inputs processed at once for each iteration.\n\n##### Utility parameters\n`--help`\n: displays a short description of all parameters accepted by the script.\n\n### Command-line options\n\nAll these parameters can be controlled by passing command-line arguments\nto the `main.py` script. To get a complete list of all command-line arguments\nwith descriptions and default values you can run:\n\n```\npython main.py --help\n```\n\n### Getting the data\n\nThe SSD model was trained on the COCO 2017 dataset. The [val2017](http://cocodataset.org/#download) validation set\nwas used as a validation dataset. PyTorch can work directly on JPEGs,\ntherefore, preprocessing/augmentation is not needed.\n\nThis repository contains the `download_dataset.sh` download script which will automatically\ndownload and preprocess the training, validation and test datasets. By default,\ndata will be downloaded to the `/coco` directory.\n\n#### Dataset guidelines\n\nOur model expects input data aligned in a way a COCO dataset is aligned by the `download_dataset.sh` script.\n`train2017` and `val2017` directories should contain images in JPEG format.\nAnnotation format is described in [the COCO documentation](http://cocodataset.org/#format-data).\n\nThe preprocessing of the data is defined in the `ssd/coco_pipeline.py` module.\n\n##### Data preprocessing\n\nBefore we feed data to the model, both during training and inference, we perform:\n* JPEG decoding\n* normalization with a mean =` [0.485, 0.456, 0.406]` and std dev = `[0.229, 0.224, 0.225]`\n* encoding bounding boxes\n* resizing to 300x300\n\nAdditionally, during training, data is:\n* randomly shuffled\n* samples without annotations are skipped\n\n##### Data augmentation\n\nDuring training we perform the following augmentation techniques:\n* Random crop using the algorithm described in the [SSD: Single Shot MultiBox Detector](https://arxiv.org/abs/1512.02325) paper\n* Random horizontal flip\n* Color jitter\n\n### Training process\n\nTraining the SSD model is implemented in the `main.py` script.\n\nBy default, training is running for 65 epochs. Because evaluation is relatively time consuming,\nit is not running every epoch. With default settings, evaluation is executed after epochs:\n21, 31, 37, 42, 48, 53, 59, 64. The model is evaluated using pycocotools distributed with\nthe COCO dataset.\n Which epochs should be evaluated can be reconfigured with the `--evaluation` argument.\n\nTo run training with Tensor Cores, use the `--amp` flag when running the `main.py` script.\nThe flag `--save ./models` flag enables storing checkpoints after each epoch under `./models/epoch_*.pt`.\n\n### Evaluation process\n\nPycocotools' open-sourced scripts provides a consistent way\nto evaluate models on the COCO dataset. We are using these scripts\nduring validation to measure a models performance in AP metric.\nMetrics below are evaluated using pycocotools' methodology, in the following format:\n```\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= all | maxDets=100 ] = 0.250\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50 | area= all | maxDets=100 ] = 0.423\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.75 | area= all | maxDets=100 ] = 0.257\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= small | maxDets=100 ] = 0.076\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area=medium | maxDets=100 ] = 0.269\n Average Precision (AP) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= large | maxDets=100 ] = 0.399\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= all | maxDets= 1 ] = 0.237\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= all | maxDets= 10 ] = 0.342\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= all | maxDets=100 ] = 0.358\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= small | maxDets=100 ] = 0.118\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area=medium | maxDets=100 ] = 0.394\n Average Recall (AR) @[ IoU=0.50:0.95 | area= large | maxDets=100 ] = 0.548\n```\nThe metric reported in our results is present in the first row.\n\n### Inference process\n\nOur scripts for SSD300 v1.1 presents two ways to run inference.\nTo get meaningful results, you need a pre-trained model checkpoint.\n\nOne way is to run an interactive session on Jupyter notebook, as described in a 8th step of the [Quick Start Guide](#quick-start-guide).\n\nThe container prints Jupyter notebook logs like this:\n```\n[I 16:17:58.935 NotebookApp] Writing notebook server cookie secret to /root/.local/share/jupyter/runtime/notebook_cookie_secret\n[I 16:17:59.769 NotebookApp] JupyterLab extension loaded from /opt/conda/lib/python3.6/site-packages/jupyterlab\n[I 16:17:59.769 NotebookApp] JupyterLab application directory is /opt/conda/share/jupyter/lab\n[I 16:17:59.770 NotebookApp] Serving notebooks from local directory: /workspace\n[I 16:17:59.770 NotebookApp] The Jupyter Notebook is running at:\n[I 16:17:59.770 NotebookApp] http://(65935d756c71 or 127.0.0.1):8888/?token=04c78049c67f45a4d759c8f6ddd0b2c28ac4eab60d81be4e\n[I 16:17:59.770 NotebookApp] Use Control-C to stop this server and shut down all kernels (twice to skip confirmation).\n[W 16:17:59.774 NotebookApp] No web browser found: could not locate runnable browser.\n[C 16:17:59.774 NotebookApp]\n\n To access the notebook, open this file in a browser:\n file:///root/.local/share/jupyter/runtime/nbserver-1-open.html\n Or copy and paste one of these URLs:\n http://(65935d756c71 or 127.0.0.1):8888/?token=04c78049c67f45a4d759c8f6ddd0b2c28ac4eab60d81be4e\n```\n\nUse the token printed in the last line to start your notebook session.\nThe notebook is in `examples/inference.ipynb`, for example:\n\nhttp://127.0.0.1:8888/notebooks/examples/inference.ipynb?token=04c78049c67f45a4d759c8f6ddd0b2c28ac4eab60d81be4e\n\nAnother way is to run a script `examples/SSD300_inference.py`. It contains the logic from the notebook, wrapped into a Python script. The script contains sample usage.\n\nTo use the inference example script in your own code, you can call the `main` function, providing input image URIs as an argument. The result will be a list of detections for each input image.","hasAdvanced","performance","## Performance\n\n### Benchmarking\nThe following section shows how to run benchmarks measuring the model performance in training and inference modes.\n\n#### Training performance benchmark\nTraining benchmark was run in various scenarios on V100 16G GPU. For each scenario, batch size was set to 32. The benchmark does not require a checkpoint from a fully trained model.\n\nTo benchmark training, run:\n```\npython -m torch.distributed.launch --nproc_per_node={NGPU} \\\n main.py --batch-size {bs} \\\n --mode benchmark-training \\\n --benchmark-warmup 100 \\\n --benchmark-iterations 200 \\\n {fp16} \\\n --data {data}\n```\nWhere the `{NGPU}` selects number of GPUs used in benchmark, the `{bs}` is the desired batch size, the `{fp16}` is set to `--fp16` if you want to benchmark training with tensor cores, and the `{data}` is the location of the COCO 2017 dataset.\n\nBenchmark warmup is specified to omit first iterations of first epoch. Benchmark iterations is number of iterations used to measure performance.\n\n#### Inference performance benchmark\nInference benchmark was run on 1x V100 16G GPU. To benchmark inference, run:\n```\npython main.py --eval-batch-size {bs} \\\n --mode benchmark-inference \\\n --benchmark-warmup 100 \\\n --benchmark-iterations 200 \\\n {fp16} \\\n --data {data}\n```\nWhere the `{bs}` is the desired batch size, the `{fp16}` is set to `--fp16` if you want to benchmark inference with Tensor Cores, and the `{data}` is the location of the COCO 2017 dataset.\n\nBenchmark warmup is specified to omit first iterations of first epoch. Benchmark iterations is number of iterations used to measure performance.\n\n### Results\n\nThe following sections provide details on how we achieved our performance and accuracy in training and inference.\n\n#### Training accuracy results\nOur results were obtained by running the `./examples/SSD300_FP{16,32}_{1,4,8}GPU.sh`\nscript in the pytorch-19.03-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with 8x V100 16G GPUs. Batch was set to size best utilizing GPU memory. For FP32 precision, batch size is 32, for mixed precision batch size is 64\n\n| **Number of GPUs** | **Mixed precision mAP** | **Training time with mixed precision** | **FP32 mAP** | **Training time with FP32** |\n|:------------------:|:------------------------:|:-------------------------------------:|:------------:|:---------------------------:|\n| 1 | 0.2494 | 10h 39min | 0.2483 | 21h 40min |\n| 4 | 0.2495 | 2h 53min | 0.2478 | 5h 52min |\n| 8 | 0.2489 | 1h 31min | 0.2475 | 2h 54min |\n\n\nHere are example graphs of FP32 and FP16 training on 8 GPU configuration:\n\n![TrainingLoss](https://github.com/NVIDIA/DeepLearningExamples/raw/master/PyTorch/Detection/SSD/img/training_loss.png)\n\n![ValidationAccuracy](https://github.com/NVIDIA/DeepLearningExamples/raw/master/PyTorch/Detection/SSD/img/validation_accuracy.png)\n\n#### Training performance results\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `main.py` script with the\n`--mode benchmark-training` flag in the pytorch-19.03-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with V100 16G GPUs.\n\n| **Number of GPUs** | **Batch size per GPU** | **Mixed precision img/s (median)** | **FP32 img/s (median)** | **Speed-up with mixed precision** | **Multi-gpu weak scaling with mixed precision** | **Multi-gpu weak scaling with FP32** |\n|:------------------:|:----------------------:|:----------------------------------:|:-----------------------:|:---------------------------------:|:-----------------------------------------------:|:------------------------------------:|\n| 1 | 32 | 217.052 | 102.495 | 2.12 | 1.00 | 1.00 |\n| 4 | 32 | 838.457 | 397.797 | 2.11 | 3.86 | 3.88 |\n| 8 | 32 | 1639.843 | 789.695 | 2.08 | 7.56 | 7.70 |\n\nTo achieve same results, follow the [Quick start guide](#quick-start-guide) outlined above.\n\n#### Inference performance results\n\nOur results were obtained by running the `main.py` script with `--mode benchmark-inference` flag in the pytorch-19.03-py3 NGC container on NVIDIA DGX-1 with 1x V100 16G GPUs.\n\n| **Batch size** | **Mixed precision img/s (median)** | **FP32 img/s (median)** |\n|:--------------:|:----------------------------------:|:-----------------------:|\n| 2 | 163.12 | 147.91 |\n| 4 | 296.60 | 201.62 |\n| 8 | 412.52 | 228.16 |\n| 16 | 470.10 | 280.57 |\n| 32 | 520.54 | 302.43 |\n\nTo achieve same results, follow the [Quick start guide](#quick-start-guide) outlined above.","hasPerformance","policies",[],{"_181":198,"_182":199,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":197,"_157":66},{"_181":196,"_182":196,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":197,"_157":66},{"_181":194,"_182":194,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":195,"_157":66},{"_181":192,"_182":192,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":193,"_157":66},{"_181":190,"_182":190,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":191,"_157":66},{"_181":188,"_182":188,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":189,"_157":66},{"_181":186,"_182":186,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":187,"_157":66},{"_181":184,"_182":184,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":185,"_157":66},{"_181":14,"_182":14,"_146":-5,"_154":26,"_156":26,"_170":183,"_157":66},"id","name",[],"2",[],"3",[],"20.06.0",[],"20.06.1",[],"20.06.3",[],"20.06.5",[],"21.05.0",[],"-","Latest (21.05.0)","nvidia/ssd_for_pytorch","key","nvidia/resources/ssd_for_pytorch","resourceId","ssd_for_pytorch","shortDescription","With a ResNet-50 backbone and a number of architectural modifications, this version provides better accuracy and performance.","The SSD300 v1.1 model is based on the\n[SSD: Single Shot MultiBox Detector](https://arxiv.org/abs/1512.02325) paper, which\ndescribes SSD as \"a method for detecting objects in images using a single deep neural network\".\nThe input size is fixed to 300x300.\n\nThe main difference between this model and the one described in the paper is in the backbone.\nSpecifically, the VGG model is obsolete and is replaced by the ResNet-50 model.\n\nFrom the\n[Speed/accuracy trade-offs for modern convolutional object detectors](https://arxiv.org/abs/1611.10012)\npaper, the following enhancements were made to the backbone:\n* The conv5_x, avgpool, fc and softmax layers were removed from the original classification model.\n* All strides in conv4_x are set to 1x1.\n\nDetector heads are similar to the ones referenced in the paper, however,\nthey are enhanced by additional BatchNorm layers after each convolution.\n\nAdditionally, we removed weight decay on every bias parameter and\nall the BatchNorm layer parameters as described in the\n[Highly Scalable Deep Learning Training System with Mixed-Precision:\nTraining ImageNet in Four Minutes](https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.11205) paper.\n\nTraining of SSD requires computational costly augmentations.\nTo fully utilize GPUs during training we are using the\n[NVIDIA DALI](https://github.com/NVIDIA/DALI) library\nto accelerate data preparation pipelines.\n\nThis model is trained with mixed precision using Tensor Cores on Volta, Turing,\nand the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architectures. Therefore, researchers can get results\n2x faster than training without Tensor Cores, while experiencing the benefits of\nmixed precision training. This model is tested against each NGC monthly\ncontainer release to ensure consistent accuracy and performance over time.\n\n### Model architecture\n\nDespite the changes described in the previous section,\nthe overall architecture, as described in the following diagram, has not changed.\n\n

\n \n
\nFigure 1. The architecture of a Single Shot MultiBox Detector model. Image has been taken from the Single Shot MultiBox Detector paper.\n

\n\nThe backbone is followed by 5 additional convolutional layers.\nIn addition to the convolutional layers, we attached 6 detection heads:\n* The first detection head is attached to the last conv4_x layer.\n* The other five detection heads are attached to the corresponding 5 additional layers.\n\n### Default configuration\nWe trained the model for 65 epochs with the following setup:\n* SGD with momentum (0.9)\n* Learning rate = 2.6e-3 * number of GPUs * (batch_size / 32)\n* Learning rate decay – multiply by 0.1 before 43 and 54 epochs\n* We use linear warmup of the learning rate during the first epoch.\n\nFor more information, see the\n [Accurate, Large Minibatch SGD: Training ImageNet in 1 Hour](https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.02677) paper.\n\nTo enable warmup provide argument the `--warmup 300`\n* Weight decay:\n * 0 for BatchNorms and biases\n * 5e-4 for other layers\n\n**Note**: The learning rate is automatically scaled (in other words, multiplied\nby the number of GPUs and multiplied by the batch size divided by 32).\n\n### Feature support matrix\n\nThe following features are supported by this model.\n\n| **Feature** | **SSD300 v1.1 PyTorch** |\n|:---------:|:----------:|\n|[AMP](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/amp.html) | Yes |\n|[APEX DDP](https://pytorch.org/tutorials/intermediate/ddp_tutorial.html) | Yes |\n|[NVIDIA DALI](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/dali-release-notes/index.html) | Yes |\n\n#### Features\n\n[AMP](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/amp.html) is an abbreviation used for automatic mixed precision training.\n\n[DDP](https://nvidia.github.io/apex/parallel.html) stands for DistributedDataParallel and is used for multi-GPU training.\n\n[NVIDIA DALI](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/dali-release-notes/index.html) - DALI is a library accelerating data preparation pipeline.\nTo accelerate your input pipeline, you only need to define your data loader\nwith the DALI library.\nFor details, see example sources in this repo or see\nthe [DALI documentation](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/dali-developer-guide/docs/index.html)\n\n### Mixed precision training\n\nMixed precision is the combined use of different numerical precisions in\na computational method. [Mixed precision](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740)\ntraining offers significant computational speedup by performing operations\nin half-precision format, while storing minimal information in single-precision\nto retain as much information as possible in critical parts of the network.\nSince the introduction of [Tensor Cores](https://developer.nvidia.com/tensor-cores)\nin Volta, and following with both the Turing and Ampere architectures, significant training speedups are\nexperienced by switching to mixed precision -- up to 3x overall speedup\non the most arithmetically intense model architectures. Using mixed precision\ntraining requires two steps:\n1. Porting the model to use the FP16 data type where appropriate.\n2. Adding loss scaling to preserve small gradient values.\n\nThe ability to train deep learning networks with lower precision was introduced\nin the Pascal architecture and first supported in [CUDA 8](https://devblogs.nvidia.com/parallelforall/tag/fp16/)\nin the NVIDIA Deep Learning SDK.\n\nFor information about:\n- How to train using mixed precision, see the [Mixed Precision Training](https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.03740)\npaper and [Training With Mixed Precision](https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/sdk/mixed-precision-training/index.html)\ndocumentation.\n- Techniques used for mixed precision training, see the [Mixed-Precision\nTraining of Deep Neural Networks](https://devblogs.nvidia.com/mixed-precision-training-deep-neural-networks/)\nblog.\n- PyTorch AMP, see the [PyTorch Automatic Mixed Precision package](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/amp.html).\n\n#### Enabling mixed precision\n\nMixed precision is enabled in PyTorch by using the Automatic Mixed Precision (AMP)\nautocast [torch.cuda.amp.autocast](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/amp.html#autocasting) which casts variables\nto half-precision upon retrieval, while storing variables in single-precision format.\nFurthermore, to preserve small gradient magnitudes in backpropagation,\na [gradient scaling](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/amp.html#gradient-scaling)\nstep must be included.\n\nFor an in-depth walk through on AMP, check out sample usage\n[here](https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/amp.html).\n\n#### Enabling TF32\n\nTensorFloat-32 (TF32) is the new math mode in [NVIDIA A100](https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/) GPUs for handling the matrix math also called tensor operations. TF32 running on Tensor Cores in A100 GPUs can provide up to 10x speedups compared to single-precision floating-point math (FP32) on Volta GPUs.\n\nTF32 Tensor Cores can speed up networks using FP32, typically with no loss of accuracy. It is more robust than FP16 for models which require high dynamic range for weights or activations.\n\nFor more information, refer to the [TensorFloat-32 in the A100 GPU Accelerates AI Training, HPC up to 20x](https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/2020/05/14/tensorfloat-32-precision-format/) blog post.\n\nTF32 is supported in the NVIDIA Ampere GPU architecture and is enabled by default.\n\n### Glossary\n\nbackbone\n: a part of a many object detection architectures, usually pre-trained for a different,\nsimpler task, like classification.\n\ninput pipeline\n: set of operations performed for every item in input data before feeding the neural\nnetwork. Especially for object detection task, the input pipeline can be complex\nand computationally significant. For that reason, solutions like NVIDIA DALI emerged.\n\nobject detection\n: a subset of Computer Vision problem. The task of object detection is to localize\npossibly multiple objects on the image and classify them. The difference between\nObject Detection, Image Classification, and Localization are clearly explained in the\nvideo published as a part of the [C4W3L01 course](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GSwYGkTfOKk).\n\nSSD (Single Shot MultiBox Detector)\n: a name for the detection model described in a [paper authored by Liu at al.](https://arxiv.org/abs/1512.02325)\n\nResNet (ResNet-50)\n: a name for the classification model described in a [paper authored by He et al.](https://arxiv.org/abs/1512.03385)\nIn this repo, it is used as a backbone for SSD.","displayName","SSD v1.1 for PyTorch",["D",1680632293777],"publisher","NVIDIA","latestVersion","versions","collectionCounts","imageUrl","/api/image/nvidia/-/resources/ssd_for_pytorch","rawImageUrl","https://assets.nvidiagrid.net/ngc/logos/Deep-Learning-Examples.png","canGuestDownload","latestVersionSizeInBytes",815007,"licenseTerms","isMultinodeEnabled","isMultiArchitecture","bias","explainability","privacy","safetyAndSecurity","featureLabels",[],"displayLabels",[241,242],"policyLabels",[],"systemLabels",[],"products",[],"hasNimMetadata",{"_208":252,"_244":253,"_246":254,"_248":249},{"_208":243,"_244":245,"_246":247,"_248":249},"Deep Learning Examples","value","pltfm_deep_learning_examples","filter",{"_250":251,"_244":245},"category","label","field","platform","Computer Vision","soln_computer_vision",{"_250":255,"_244":253},"technology",{"_86":1432,"_88":1433},"ngcApps",[1385],"csaApiBaseUrl","https://www.nvidia.com/ai-agents/csa-agent/dcsm","datadogRum",{"_1366":1367,"_1368":1369,"_1370":1371,"_1372":1373,"_1374":267,"_117":291,"_1375":1376,"_1377":50,"_1378":66,"_1379":66,"_1380":1381,"_1382":66,"_1383":1384},"amplitude",{"_1363":1364,"_965":-7,"_1365":26},"disableJs","environment","prod","featureFlagsBlob","JTdCJTIydGVzdEZsYWclMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMnNob3dTZWFyY2hMYWJlbFNldEZpbHRlcnMlMjIlM0FmYWxzZSUyQyUyMmNoaW5hTmltRGlzdHJpYnV0b3JzUmVkZXNpZ24lMjIlM0F0cnVlJTJDJTIyZW5hYmxlQ3NhV2lkZ2V0JTIyJTNBZmFsc2UlMkMlMjJlbmFibGVQcm9kdWN0R3JvdXBpbmdCeVN1YnNjcmlwdGlvbiUyMiUzQWZhbHNlJTJDJTIyY29udGFpbmVyU2Nhbm5pbmdSZWRlc2lnbk0xJTIyJTNBdHJ1ZSU3RA==","featureFlagsGuarded","isDevLikeEnv","isPlaywright","isMobileDevice","categorizedOrgs",{"_1357":1358,"_1359":1360,"_1361":1362},"currentOrgContext","currentContextRoles",[],"enterpriseOrgs",[],"locale","en","ngcApiOrigin","ngcHelmOrigin","origin","https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com","usesMocks","theme","year",2026,"1.7.3","defaultSearchSuggestions",{"_1240":372,"_1241":1242,"_1243":1244,"_1245":1246},"announcements",[],"consentState",{"_329":1230,"_1231":66,"_1232":26,"_1233":26,"_1234":1235},"consentConfig",{"_311":312,"_313":314,"_315":316,"_317":318,"_319":320,"_321":322,"_323":324,"_325":326,"_327":328,"_329":330},"showContactAdmin",1784475089078,[],[],[305,306,307,308,309,310],{"_39":54,"_41":63,"_43":56,"_45":-5,"_47":-5,"_49":50},{"_39":54,"_41":61,"_43":56,"_45":-5,"_47":-5,"_49":50},{"_39":54,"_41":57,"_43":56,"_45":-5,"_47":-5,"_49":50},{"_39":54,"_41":55,"_43":56,"_45":-5,"_47":-5,"_49":50},{"_39":51,"_41":52,"_43":56,"_45":-5,"_47":-5,"_49":50},{"_39":40,"_41":42,"_43":56,"_45":-5,"_47":-5,"_49":50},"mainInfoText","We and our third-party partners (including social media, advertising, and analytics partners) use cookies and other tracking technologies to collect, store, monitor, and process certain information about you when you visit our website. 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They are capable of tracking your browser across other sites and building up a profile of your interests. This may impact the content and messages you see on other websites you visit. If you do not allow these cookies you may not be able to use or see these sharing tools.","alwaysActive","order",11,"cookies",[],"hosts",[],"C0004","Advertising Cookies","These cookies record your visit to our websites, the pages you have visited and the links you have followed to influence the advertisements that you see on other websites. These cookies and the information they collect may be managed by other companies, including our advertising partners, and may be used to build a profile of your interests and show you relevant advertising on other sites. We and our advertising partners will use this information to make our websites and the advertising displayed on it, more relevant to your interests.",5,[481,482,483,484,485,486,487,488,489,490,491,492,493,494,495,496,497,498,499,500,501,502,503,504,505,506,507,508,509,510,511,512,513,514,515],[353,354,355,356,357,358,359,360,361,362,363,364,365,366,367,368,369],{"_370":477,"_208":477,"_144":372,"_343":478},{"_370":472,"_208":472,"_144":372,"_343":473},{"_370":468,"_208":468,"_144":372,"_343":469},{"_370":463,"_208":463,"_144":372,"_343":464},{"_370":458,"_208":458,"_144":372,"_343":459},{"_370":446,"_208":446,"_144":372,"_343":447},{"_370":434,"_208":434,"_144":372,"_343":435},{"_370":429,"_208":429,"_144":372,"_343":430},{"_370":418,"_208":418,"_144":372,"_343":419},{"_370":413,"_208":413,"_144":372,"_343":414},{"_370":408,"_208":408,"_144":372,"_343":409},{"_370":403,"_208":403,"_144":372,"_343":404},{"_370":398,"_208":398,"_144":372,"_343":399},{"_370":393,"_208":393,"_144":372,"_343":394},{"_370":388,"_208":388,"_144":372,"_343":389},{"_370":381,"_208":381,"_144":372,"_343":382},{"_370":371,"_208":371,"_144":372,"_343":373},"hostName","amazon-adsystem.com","",[374,375],{"_182":380,"_377":371,"_378":26,"_144":379},{"_182":376,"_377":371,"_378":26,"_144":379},"ad-privacy","host","isSession","This domain is owned by online retailer Amazon and is used as part of its affiliate marketing programme.","ad-id","doubleclick.net",[383,384],{"_182":387,"_377":381,"_378":26,"_144":386},{"_182":385,"_377":381,"_378":26,"_144":386},"IDE","This domain is owned by Doubleclick (Google). The main business activity is: Doubleclick is Googles real time bidding advertising exchange","test_cookie","bing.com",[390],{"_182":391,"_377":388,"_378":26,"_144":392},"MUID","This domain is owned by Mircosoft - it is the site for the search engine Bing.","assets.adobedtm.com",[395],{"_182":396,"_377":393,"_378":26,"_144":397},"kndctr_F207D74D549850760A4C98C6_AdobeOrg_consent","If you know anything about this host and its uses please add your contributions here. ","tiktok.com",[400],{"_182":401,"_377":398,"_378":26,"_144":402},"_ttp","TikTok is a social media platform owned by ByteDance, known for short-form video sharing. The service is used to create and share videos, and it utilizes cookies for various purposes including advertising and analytics.","t.co",[405],{"_182":406,"_377":403,"_378":26,"_144":407},"muc_ads","This domain is owned by Twitter. It is used as a URL shortening service, which allows Twitter to collect data on how links are shared.","snowplow.com",[410],{"_182":411,"_377":408,"_378":26,"_144":412},"sp","Testing","google.com",[415],{"_182":416,"_377":413,"_378":26,"_144":417},"NID","This domain is owned by Google Inc. Although Google is primarily known as a search engine, the company provides a diverse range of products and services. Its main source of revenue however is advertising. Google tracks users extensively both through its own products and sites, and the numerous technologies embedded into many millions of websites around the world. It uses the data gathered from most of these services to profile the interests of web users and sell advertising space to organisations based on such interest profiles as well as aligning adverts to the content on the pages where its customer's adverts appear.","tags.srv.stackadapt.com",[420,421,422,423],{"_182":428,"_377":418,"_378":26,"_144":425},{"_182":427,"_377":418,"_378":26,"_144":425},{"_182":426,"_377":418,"_378":26,"_144":425},{"_182":424,"_377":418,"_378":26,"_144":425},"sa-user-id-v3","This domain is associated with StackAdapt, a platform for programmatic advertising, which suggests that it is used for targeting and advertising purposes.","sa-user-id","sa-user-id-v2","sa-user-id-v4","linkedin.com",[431],{"_182":432,"_377":429,"_378":26,"_144":433},"bcookie","This domain is owned by LinkedIn, the business networking platform. It typically acts as a third party host where website owners have placed one of its content sharing buttons in their pages, although its content and services can be embedded in other ways. Although such buttons add functionality to the website they are on, cookies are set regardless of whether or not the visitor has an active Linkedin profile, or agreed to their terms and conditions. For this reason it is classified as a primarily tracking/targeting domain.","twitter.com",[436,437,438,439],{"_182":445,"_377":434,"_378":26,"_144":441},{"_182":443,"_377":434,"_378":26,"_144":444},{"_182":442,"_377":434,"_378":26,"_144":441},{"_182":440,"_377":434,"_378":26,"_144":441},"personalization_id","This domain is owned by Twitter. The main business activity is: Social Networking Services. Where twitter acts as a third party host, it collects data through a range of plug-ins and integrations, that is primarily used for tracking and targeting.","guest_id_marketing","guest_id","Twitter does not currently provide information on the use of specific cookies.","guest_id_ads","youtube.com",[448,449,450,451],{"_182":457,"_377":446,"_378":26,"_144":455},{"_182":456,"_377":446,"_378":26,"_144":455},{"_182":454,"_377":446,"_378":26,"_144":455},{"_182":452,"_377":446,"_378":26,"_144":453},"VISITOR_INFO1_LIVE","This cookie is used as a unique identifier to track viewing of videos","__Secure-YNID","YouTube is a Google owned platform for hosting and sharing videos. YouTube collects user data through videos embedded in websites, which is aggregated with profile data from other Google services in order to display targeted advertising to web visitors across a broad range of their own and other websites.","__Secure-YEC","__Secure-ROLLOUT_TOKEN","demdex.net",[460],{"_182":461,"_377":458,"_378":26,"_144":462},"demdex","This cookie helps Adobe Audience Manger perform basic functions such as visitor identification, ID synchronization, segmentation, modeling, reporting, etc.","im-apps.net",[465],{"_182":466,"_377":463,"_378":26,"_144":467},"receive-cookie-deprecation","This domain is owned by im-apps.net which provides information and resources about various instant messaging (IM) applications to help users make informed decisions based on their communication needs.","influ2.com",[470],{"_182":471,"_377":468,"_378":26,"_144":412},"R","6sc.co",[474],{"_182":475,"_377":472,"_378":26,"_144":476},"6suuid","This domain is associated with the company 6Sense Insights, Inc., which provides predictive analytics and account engagement services. 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It stores a unique visitor identifier, and uses an organisation identifier to allow a company to track users across their domains and services.This is a pattern type cookie name associated with Adobe Marketing Cloud. It stores a unique visitor identifier, and uses an organisation identifier.","kndctr_F207D74D549850760A4C98C6_AdobeOrg_identity","_rdt_pn","www.nvidia.com","This cookie name is associated with www.mind.org.uk which is used for marketing purposes.","ai-podcast.nvidia.com","This cookie is used to identify the user's session on the website and is often associated with analytics or personalization.","_gcl_au","Used by Google AdSense for experimenting with advertisement efficiency across websites using their services","_mkto_trk","This cookie is associated with an email marketing service provided by Marketo. This tracking cookie allows a website to link visitor behaviour to the recipient of an email marketing campaign, to measure campaign effectiveness.","_gat_gtag_UA_140825383_2","Google Analytics","_zitok","This cookie name is associated with ZoomInfo which is used to maintain a unique visitor identifier and store Personally Identifiable Information.","_rdt_uuid","This cookie is set by Reddit and is used for tracking the views of embedded videos and performance of the advertisements.","AMP_91bf70adfe","Supports Amplitude product analytics.","This cookie name is associated with StackAdapt Inc. which is used to support the effective management and optimization of digital advertising campaigns by handling information such as visitor actions on websites, visited pages, time spent, page load speed, and more.","build.nvidia.com","kndctr_F207D74D549850760A4C98C6_AdobeOrg_cluster","_cs_nnnnnnnnnnnnn","This is a session cookie. 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It is commonly used for analytics and personalization of content.","marketplace.nvidia.com","AMP_MKTG_92dea1e784","This cookie is typically associated with SnackTools, which is a suite of web applications for creating and sharing multimedia content. It is used to identify a user across sessions and track user activities.","forums.developer.nvidia.com","This cookie is typically associated with the use of Taptap Digital, a company specializing in digital advertising. It is used for tracking and ad personalization purposes.","_tt_enable_cookie","This cookie name is associated with TikTok which is used to collect data about behavior and purchases on the website and to measure the effect of advertising. It is also used to track website activity to help optimize advertising efforts.","AMCV_xxxxxAdobeOrg","This cookie is used to identify a unique visitor for tracking purposes by Adobe Experience Cloud.This is a pattern type cookie name associated with Adobe Marketing Cloud. It stores a unique visitor identifier, and uses an organisation identifier to allow a company to track users across their domains and services.","ttcsid","This cookie name is associated with TikTok which is used to enable TikTok Ads session tracking by assigning a unique session ID to users who click on TikTok ads, allowing for the attribution of user behavior and conversions within the same session.This cookie is associated with TikTok. It helps track your activity on the platform, including how you interact with their embedded services on other websites.","AMP_MKTG_91bf70adfe","C0003","Personalization Cookies","These cookies collect data about how you have interacted with our website to help us improve your web experience, such as which pages you have visited. These cookies may store a unique ID so that our system will remember you when you return. They may be set by us or by third party providers whose services we have added to our pages. These cookies enable us to provide enhanced website functionality and personalization as well as make the marketing messages we send to you more relevant to your interests. If you do not allow these cookies, then some or all of these services may not function properly.",[603,604,605,606,607,608,609,610,611,612,613,614,615,616,617,618,619,620,621,622,623],[568,569,570,571,572],{"_370":463,"_208":463,"_144":372,"_343":594},{"_370":429,"_208":429,"_144":372,"_343":589},{"_370":582,"_208":582,"_144":372,"_343":583},{"_370":578,"_208":578,"_144":372,"_343":579},{"_370":573,"_208":573,"_144":372,"_343":574},"nvcrm.my.site.com",[575],{"_182":576,"_377":573,"_378":26,"_144":577},"BrowserId","If you know anything about this cookie and its uses that are not specific to a particular site please add your contributions.","nvidia.partners",[580],{"_182":581,"_377":578,"_378":26,"_144":412},"edge","github.com",[584,585],{"_182":588,"_377":582,"_378":26,"_144":587},{"_182":586,"_377":582,"_378":26,"_144":587},"logged_in","This domain is owned by Github. 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We have categorized it under Functionality because it is necessary for the operation of our affiliate program.","nv.modal.cuda","This cookie name suggests it is related to a modal popup functionality on NVIDIA's website, possibly to remember user preferences or interactions with the modal.","readme_library","docs.api.nvidia.com","_im_ses.1006927","geo_locator","nv.modal.deepstream","openedx-language-preference","learn.nvidia.com","doxygen_width","raytracing-docs.nvidia.com","This cookie is likely used to remember the width preferences of a sidebar or interface element within a documentation platform like Doxygen.","_sfid_eb78","This cookie is categorized as Functionality Cookie.","_im_id.1006927","_hjUserAttributesHash","docs.nvidia.com","This cookie name is associated with Hotjar which is used to know when any user attribute has changed and needs to be updated.","mbox","Cookie set by Adobe SiteCatalyst analytics software - used for measuring the performance of page content using A/B split testing","nv.modal.cudnn","This cookie name suggests it is related to modal popup handling or user interface preferences on NVIDIA's website, specifically for the cuDNN library section.","readme_language","nv.modal.hpc","This cookie name suggests it is related to a modal pop-up on a website, possibly to control the display of a high-priority cookie notice or other important information to the user.","at_check","Used by Adobe Target to check if cookies are enabled/supported on the browser","_biz_uid","This cookie is used to record website and server performance with each visit to the site. The data is aggregated and analyzed; therefore, it remains anonymous upon use.\n","nvHeadless","This cookie is likely used to track if a user is using the site in a 'headless' non-GUI mode, which could be for accessibility reasons or for automated processes.","_biz_nA","C0002","Performance Cookies","These cookies are used to provide quantitative measures of our website visitors, such as the number of times you visit, time on page, your mouse movements, scrolling, clicks and keystroke activity on the websites; other browsing, search, or product research behavior; and what brought you to our site. These cookies may store a unique ID so that our system will remember you when you return. Information collected with these cookies is used to measure and find ways to improve website 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